La pédopsychiatrie est actuellement traversée par un débat important : alors qu'elle a généralement eu pour projet d'accompagner le travail de subjectivation des enfants qui lui sont confiés, sa démarche est aujourd'hui remise en question par le retour des modèles médicaux classiques qui connaissent un renouveau grâce aux recherches effectuées dans les champs des neurosciences et de la psychologie cognitive. A l'intérieur de ce débat, la discussion porte essentiellement sur les conceptions sous-jacentes à la lecture de ces troubles à partir d'une controverse qui remet en scène l'opposition psychogénèse / organogenèse, curabilité / incurabilité, des troubles mentaux chez l'enfant. Notre démarche s'inscrit dans le cadre d'un dispositif chargé de l'accompagnement et du soin d'enfants bénéficiant d'une intégration scolaire dans des classes spécialisées de l'éducation nationale. Ces enfants présentent des troubles importants de la personnalité et du comportement pris dans des "dysharmonies psychotiques" ou des "dysharmonies d'évolution", associées à des retards mentaux. Dans ce travail, il est envisagé que les retards du développement intellectuel correspondent ici à des tableaux d'apparence déficitaire qui relèvent essentiellement des contraintes cognitives exercées par les processus psychopathologiques mis en jeu dans ces cadres nosographiques. La mise en évidence de compétences cognitives préservées, chez ces enfants qui montrent par ailleurs des profils déficitaires, permettrait de préciser la composante dysharmonique des troubles du développement, et d'apporter un nouvel éclairage quant à la nature de ces troubles. D'autre part, l'observation de profils cognitifs, plus ou moins spécifiques de chacune des entités nosographiques concernées, pourrait révéler les liens de continuité entre les processus cognitifs et les processus psychiques, et faire apparaître des contraintes cognitives caractéristiques des processus psychopathologiques sous-jacents. Cette démarche permettrait d'étayer la réflexion portant sur le projet de soins par une connaissance approfondie des liens entre processus psychiques et processus cognitifs. / Child psychiatry is at present crossed by an important debate: whereas its project has generally been to support the work of subjectivation of the children entrusted in its care, today its approach is challenged by the return of classical medical models which experience a renewal of interest thanks to the research carried out into neuroscience and cognitive psychology. Inside this debate, the discussion essentially revolves around the conceptions that lie under the interpretation of the disorders, from a controversy that brings again into play the opposition psychogenesis / organogenesis, curability / incurability of the mental disorders in the children’s. Our approach falls within the scope of a system which is in charge of the support and care of children who are benefiting from integration into specialised classes of state education schools. These children show important personality and behavioural problems which are part of “psychotic disharmonies” or “evolution disharmonies” combined with backwardness. In this work, it is expected that the intellectual development retardation corresponds to apparently deficient pictures which are the products of cognitive constraints exercised by the psychopathological processes at work in these nosographic contexts. Bringing to the fore preserved cognitive abilities among these children, who in other respects show deficient profiles, would enable to specify the disharmonic component of the development disorders and shed new light on the nature of these disorders. Moreover observing cognitive profiles, more or less specific to each nosographic entity concerned, could reveal the links of continuity between the cognitive processes and psychic processes, and bring to light cognitive constraints which are characteristic of the underlying psychopathological processes. This approach would enables to back up our reflections upon the care project thanks to a thorough knowledge of the links between psychic processes and cognitive processes.

Existem evidências de que as manifestações psicóticas não são vivenciadas apenas por pessoas diagnosticadas com transtornos mentais, mas também por pessoas saudáveis da população geral, as denominadas experiências tipo-psicóticas. A Escala de Avaliação das Experiências Psíquicas na Comunidade (CAPE) é um instrumento usado em pesquisas epidemiológicas e foi desenvolvido especificamente para a detecção e avaliação da frequência de experiências tipo-psicóticas na população geral. A CAPE, em sua apresentação original é composta por 42 itens, distribuídos em três dimensões: positiva, negativa e depressiva. O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar as evidências de fidedignidade e validade da CAPE em uma amostra brasileira e investigar a associação de traumas na infância e uso de cannabis com a ocorrência de experiências tipo-psicóticas em indivíduos da população geral. A amostra foi composta por 217 pacientes em primeiro episódio psicótico, 104 irmãos de pacientes psicóticos e 319 controles de base populacional, todos residentes na área de cobertura do Departamento Regional de Saúde do Estado de São Paulo (DRS XIII). Os participantes responderam a instrumentos de avaliação e diagnósticos, incluindo a Entrevista Clínica Estruturada para o DSM IV (SCID), o Questionário sobre Traumas na Infância (CTQ), Questionário de Experiências com Maconha (CEQ), além da CAPE. Os dados clínicos foram analisados por meio do pacote estatístico SPSS e as evidências psicométricas por meio do software AMOS. Após a retirada de nove itens, a CAPE, com 33 itens, mostrou bons índices de ajustamento [CFI = 0,895; GFI = 0,822; PGFI = 0,761; RMSEA = 0,055 p (rmsea <= 0,05) = 0,04] e boa consistência interna (> 0,70) em todos as suas dimensões. Nas análises realizadas apenas com a amostra de base populacional, não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre as pontuações totais da CAPE-33 e das suas três dimensões quanto a intervalos de idade, estado civil e escolaridade. Mulheres apresentaram pontuações significativamente mais elevadas do que os homens no escore total (p<0,001) e nas dimensões negativa (p < 0,001) e depressiva (p < 0,001). A vivência de traumas na infância (abuso emocional, abuso físico, abuso sexual, negligência emocional, negligência física) associou-se com pontuações mais elevadas no escore total da CAPE (p <0,001) e nas suas três dimensões (positiva p = 0.001, negativa p = 0,004, depressiva p < 0,001). Indivíduos que relataram uso de cannabis alguma vez na vida apresentaram maiores pontuações na dimensão positiva da CAPE-33, em comparação às pessoas que nunca usaram a substância (p = 0,016). A CAPE adaptada para o Brasil (CAPE-33) mostrou bons índices de ajustamento e consistência interna, como encontrado em outras culturas. Presença de trauma precoce e uso de cannabis associaram-se à ocorrência de experiências tipo-psicóticas, à semelhança do que os estudos epidemiológicos mostram para a esquizofrenia. Nossos dados corroboram a abordagem dimensional das psicoses, com frequência e gravidade das manifestações se distribuindo num continnum na população geral. / There is evidence that psychotic manifestation is not experienced only by people diagnosed with mental disorders but also by healthy people in the general population, known as psychotic-like experiences. The Community Assessment Psychic Experiences (CAPE) is an instrument used in epidemiological research and was developed specifically for the detection and evaluation of the frequency of psychotic-like experiences in the general population. The CAPE, in its original submission, is composed of 42 items, distributed in three dimensions: positive, negative and depressive. The objective of this study was to verify the evidence of reliability and validity the CAPE in a brazilian sample and to investigate the association of childhood traumas and cannabis use with the occurrence of psychotic-like experiences in individuals of the general population. The sample consisted of 217 patients in the first psychotic episode, 104 siblings of psychotic patients and 319 population-based controls, all residents in the coverage area of the São Paulo Regional Health Department (DRS XIII). Participants responded to assessment and diagnostic tools, including the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV (SCID), the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), the Cannabis Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), and CAPE. Clinical data were analyzed using SPSS statistical package and the psychometric evidence using AMOS software. After the removal of nine items, CAPE, with 33 items, showed good adjustment indices [CFI = 0.895; GFI = 0.822; PGFI = 0.761; RMSEA = 0.055 p (rmsea <= 0.05) = 0.04] and good internal consistency (> 0.70) in all its dimensions. In the analyzes performed only with the population-based sample, no significant differences were found between the CAPE-33 total scores and its three dimensions regarding age, marital status and schooling intervals. Women presented scores significantly higher than men in the total score (p <0.001) and in the negative (p <0.001) and depressive (p <0.001) dimensions. The experience of childhood traumas (emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect) was associated with higher scores in the CAPE total score (p <0.001) and its three dimensions (positive p = 0.001, negative p = 0.004, depressive p <0.001). Individuals who reported cannabis use in their lifetime had higher scores in the positive dimension of the CAPE-33 compared to people who had never used the substance (p = 0.016). The CAPE adapted to Brazil (CAPE-33) showed good adjustment indices and internal consistency, as found in other cultures. Presence of early trauma and use of cannabis were associated with the occurrence of psychotic-like experiences, in accordance with what epidemiological studies show for schizophrenia. Our data corroborate the dimensional approach of the psychoses, with frequency and severity of the manifestations being distributed in a continnum in the general population.

A fase inicial dos transtornos psicóticos tem recebido atenção crescente nas últimas décadas, principalmente por tratar-se de um momento de grandes mudanças e perturbações para os indivíduos acometidos e seus familiares. Entre as ferramentas disponíveis para garantir um melhor prognóstico dos indivíduos que vivenciam a fase inicial da psicose destaca-se a intervenção precoce que engloba medidas desenvolvidas com o indivíduo e seus familiares. Para efetivação das propostas de intervenção direcionadas a essa clientela é fundamental o desenvolvimento de estudos de avaliação. Desse modo, o presente estudo tem como objetivo compreender o atendimento familiar individual e o grupo de ação multifamiliar desenvolvidos no Ambulatório de Primeiro Episódio Psicótico (APEP) na perspectiva dos familiares e pacientes. Estudo de abordagem qualitativa a luz do referencial teórico do paradigma da complexidade de Edgar Morin. Participaram do estudo oito díades, pacientes em seguimento no ambulatório de Primeiro Episódio Psicótico do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto da Universidade de São Paulo (APEP/HC-FMRP-USP) e seus familiares que participam de atividades propostas para eles no serviço. Para coleta dos dados foram utilizadas as seguintes questões norteadoras: Você tem tido oportunidade de discutir o que te interessa ou incomoda durante os grupos/atendimentos? Você tem alguma sugestão do que seria interessante conversar e faltou nos grupos/atendimentos? Para você se sentir melhor existe mais alguma coisa que você gostaria de saber? Os dados foram submetidos à análise temática proposta por Braun & Clark. A análise possibilitou a construção de três categorias temáticas e subcategorias: 1) intervenções aos familiares como troca de experiência; 2) envolvimento com as intervenções familiares e 3) reconhecimento do conteúdo abordado nas intervenções familiares. Os resultados reforçam a importância da oferta de intervenções que envolvam pacientes na fase inicial da psicose e seus familiares / The initial phase of psychotic disorders has received increasing attention in the last decades, mainly because it is a time of great changes and disturbances for the affected individuals and their relatives. Among the tools available to guarantee a better prognosis of the individuals who experience the initial phase of psychosis is the early intervention that includes measures developed with the individual and their relatives. The development of evaluation studies is fundamental for the effectiveness of the intervention proposals directed to this clientele. Thus, the present study aims to understand individual family care and the multifamily action group developed in the Psychotic First Episode Outpatient Clinic (APEP) from the perspective of family members and patients. Study of qualitative approach in the light of the theoretical reference of the paradigm of the complexity of Edgar Morin. Participants in the study were eight dyads, patients in the Psychotic First Episode Clinic of the Hospital das Clínicas of the University of São Paulo at Ribeirão Preto Medical School (APEP / HC-FMRP-USP) and their families participating in activities proposed for them in service. The following guiding questions were used to collect the data: Have you had an opportunity to discuss what interests you or bothers you during the groups / services? Do you have any suggestions of what would be interesting to talk about and missed in the groups / services? Do you feel better if there is something else you would like to know? The data were submitted to the thematic analysis proposed by Braun & Clark. The analysis allowed the construction of three thematic categories and subcategories: 1) interventions to family members as an exchange of experience; 2) involvement with family interventions and 3) recognition of the content addressed in family interventions. The results reinforce the importance of offering interventions that involve patients in the initial phase of psychosis and their relatives

O primeiro episódio psicótico (PEP) é um período marcado por uma série de mudanças na dinâmica familiar. A família tem um papel importante no processo de tratamento desses pacientes. As atitudes dos membros familiares acerca do paciente são avaliadas por meio dos níveis de Emoção Expressa (EE) e de sobrecarga familiar. Apesar da importância do papel dos cuidadores, estudos conduzidos para avaliar as relações intrafamiliares de pacientes no PEP são escassos. Este estudo observacional teve como objetivo determinar os fatores relacionados aos níveis de EE e sobrecarga de familiares de pacientes no PEP. Participaram do estudo 100 familiares e 100 pacientes em acompanhamento em um ambulatório de um hospital universitário do interior do Estado de São Paulo, no período de janeiro de 2015 a janeiro de 2016. Para a coleta de dados foram utilizados quatro instrumentos: um formulário contendo dados sociodemográficos e clínicos, o Family Questionnaire - Versão Português do Brasil (FQ-VPB) para avaliar os níveis de EE e de seus domínios Comentários Críticos (CC) e Superenvolvimento Emocional (SEE), o Inventário de Sobrecarga do Cuidador (ISC) para medir os níveis de sobrecarga dos familiares e a Medida de Adesão aos Tratamentos (MAT) para avaliar a adesão ao tratamento. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de entrevista dirigida. Para análise utilizou-se estatística descritiva e regressão logística múltipla. O nível de significância adotado foi de 0,05. Quanto aos resultados, a maioria dos familiares (62%) foi classificada com elevado nível de EE, 63% com baixo nível de CC, 59% com elevado nível de SEE e 43% apresentaram nível moderado de sobrecarga familiar. Em relação à adesão ao tratamento, 84% dos pacientes foram considerados aderentes. Houve associação significante entre os níveis de EE, SEE e o sexo e escolaridade dos familiares, entre o vínculo com o paciente e os níveis de EE, SEE e CC, entre os níveis de sobrecarga e o diagnóstico médico e entre a idade do paciente e os níveis de CC. Além disso, houve associação significante entre os níveis de EE, SEE e CC e os níveis de sobrecarga. A análise do modelo multivariado mostrou que os anos de estudo do familiar foram considerados fatores de proteção para o desenvolvimento de níveis elevados de EE e SEE, enquanto os anos de estudo do paciente foram considerados fatores de proteção para sobrecarga moderada. Outro fator de proteção identificado foi o tipo de vínculo com o paciente, ou seja, ser pai, avós, sobrinhos, primos, tios ou colegas, representa fator de proteção para nível elevado de EE, CC e sobrecarga moderada, moderada a severa e severa. Por outro lado, familiares do sexo feminino apresentaram 4,81 vezes mais chance de apresentar nível elevado de SEE do que familiares do sexo masculino. Além disso, familiares de pacientes com diagnóstico de esquizofrenia tem 4,19 vezes mais chance de apresentar nível elevado de CC do que familiares de pacientes sem diagnóstico. Espera-se que esses resultados possam fornecer informações para elaboração de estratégias de prevenção e promoção em saúde mental que envolvam os pacientes no PEP e seus familiares / The first-episode psychosis (FEP) is a period marked by a series of changes in family dynamics. Family plays an important role in the treatment of these patients. The attitudes of family members about the patient are evaluated by the levels of Expressed Emotion (EE) and family burden. Despite the importance of the role of caregivers, conducted studies to assess the intra-family relationships of patients in the FEP are scarce. This observational study aimed to determine the factors related to EE levels and relatives to FEP patients overwhelmed. The study included 100 families and 100 patients followed up in a clinic of a university hospital in the state of São Paulo, from January 2015 to January 2016. For data collection were used four instruments: a form containing sociodemographic and clinical data; the Family Questionnaire - Brazil\'s Portuguese version (FQ-BPV) to measure the EE levels and its domains of Criticism and emotional overinvolvement (EOI); the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) to measure the overload levels of family members and the Measurement of Treatment Adherence (MTA) to evaluate adherence to treatment. The data were obtained by guided interview. For analysis, it was used descriptive statistics and multiple logistic regression. The significance level was 0.05. As the results, most families (62%) were classified with high level of EE, 63% with low criticism, 59% with high level of EOI and 43% had moderate level of family burden. In relation to adherence to treatment, 84% of patients were considered adherent. There was a significant association between EE levels, EOI and the gender and education of family members, between the relationship with the patient and EE levels, EOI and criticism, between the burden levels and the medical diagnosis and between the age of the patient and criticism levels. In addition, there was a significant association between EE levels, EOI and criticism and burden levels. The analysis of the multivariate model showed that the years family study were considered protective factors for the development of high levels of EE and EOI, while the years of patient study were considered protective factors to moderate overwhelm. Another protection factor identified was the type of relationship with the patient. Having another relation with the patient, ie, being a father, grandparents, nephews, cousins, uncles or colleagues, is a protective factor for high level of EE, criticism and moderate overload, moderate to severe and severe. By contrast, female members of the family had 4.81 times more likely to have high level of EOI that those family members who were male. In addition, relatives of patients with schizophrenia has 4.19 times more likely to have high levels of criticism than relatives of patients who do not have diagnosis. It is expected that these results can provide information for developing prevention strategies and promotion on mental health involving patients in the FEP and their families

Esquizofrenia é um transtorno psiquiátrico complexo que afeta cerca de 1% da população mundial. Apesar de progressos consideráveis nos últimos anos, a etiologia da doença ainda não foi elucidada principalmente pela heterogeneidade tanto do início quanto da progressão da doença. Frequentemente os sintomas dos pacientes são comuns a outras desordens neuropsiquiátricas, dificultando a diferenciação por meio de métodos essencialmente clínicos. Por isso, pesquisadores têm tentado identificar medidas baseadas em características moleculares que justifiquem e expliquem a etiologia da esquizofrenia. Já há alguns estudos com marcadores no cérebro, mas por esse ser um material com disponibilidade limitada, os esforços tem se concentrado em encontrar biomarcadores periféricos. Este estudo visou traçar um perfil proteico, em plaquetas, de pacientes drug-naïve com diagnóstico de esquizofrenia. Para tanto, comparamos este grupo com controles saudáveis e com controles psiquiátricos. Utilizamos duas abordagens proteômicas complementares para análise: a primeira, uma ferramenta clássica utilizando eletroforese bidimensional com posterior identificação dos spots por espectrometria de massas; e a segunda, uma abordagem de identificação em larga escala por shotgun label-free. Foram analisadas amostras de 16 controles saudáveis, de 11 pacientes com esquizofrenia e de 8 pacientes com transtornos do humor (controle psiquiátrico). Com a eletroforese bidimensional foram identificados 110 spots comuns nos géis de controles saudáveis, 83 spots comuns aos géis de pacientes com esquizofrenia e 80 spots comuns aos géis de pacientes com diagnóstico de transtornos do humor. Foram encontrados 27 spots exclusivos do grupo controle, não sendo detectados em nenhum dos dois grupos de pacientes. Esses spots foram recortados e analisados por espectrometria de massas revelando proteínas relacionadas com: neurotransmissão, sinapse, neurodesenvolvimento, homeostase celular, sinalização de cálcio, apoptose, resposta imune, e estresse oxidativo. Para verificação dos resultados, escolhemos proteínas de acordo com sua função já descrita na literatura e ineditismo na matriz e na casuística estudadas. Por meio da técnica de western blotting, encontramos diminuições significantes nos níveis de anexina A3 e peroxirredoxina 6 nos dois grupos de pacientes. Ambas proteínas diferentemente expressas nos pacientes já foram relacionadas à fosfolipase A2, que é a principal enzima responsável pelo metabolismo de fosfolípides de membrana e tem sido associada à desordens neuropsiquiátricas, inclusive à esquizofrenia. Ainda há algumas abordagens analíticas e bioinformáticas a serem realizadas na busca por candidatos a biomarcadores de esquizofrenia em plaquetas. Os resultados obtidos por shotgun necessitam de uma análise mais aprofundada além da verificação e validação em coortes maiores. A casuística utilizada para este trabalho é bastante valiosa já que permitirá a elucidação de alterações proteômicas já no primeiro episódio psicótico / Schizophrenia is a mulfatorial psychiatric disorder that affects about 1% of the world\'s population. Despite considerable progress in recent years, the etiology of the disease has not yet been elucidated mainly because the heterogeneity of disease onset and progression. Often the symptoms overlap to other neuropsychiatric disorders, which turns difficult to differentiate through essentially clinical methods. The researchers have focused in identify mesureable molecular characteristics that can help to elucidate schizophrenia etiology. There are already important findings regarding markers in the brain, but recent efforts have focused on finding peripheral biomarkers. This study aimed to find a protein profile in platelets of schizophrenia drug-naïve patients. For comparision we recruited two more groups: healthy controls and psychiatric control. We used two complementary proteomic approaches for analysis: a classic tool using two-dimensional electrophoresis with subsequent identification of the spots by mass spectrometry; and a large-scale label-free shotgun identification approach. The sample comprised 11 schizophrenic patients, 8 patients with mood disorders (psychiatric control and 16 healthy controls. 2-DE profiles of each sample were generated in triplicate. 110 proteins spots were identified in most gels of control group, 83 in most gels of schizophrenia group, and 80 proteins spots in most gels of bipolar disorder patients. Among these proteins spots, 76 were common to all three groups; 5 to controls and schizophrenia group; 2 common to controls and bipolar disorders groups; 2 exclusive of bipolar disorder patients and 27 proteins spots were identified exclusively in the control group. The 27 exclusive protein spots of control group were identified by LC-MS/MS. Proteins related to neurotransmission, synapse, neurodevelopment, cellular homeostasis, calcium signaling, apoptosis, immune response, and oxidative stress were identified. To verify the results, we chose proteins according to their function already described in the literature and novelty in platelets and first onset psychosis patients research. By western blotting we verified the difference in levels of annexin A3 and peroxiredoxin 6 between groups, but not of glutathione S-transferase pi 1 or 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein. Both proteins differentially expressed have already been related to phospholipase A2, which is the main enzyme responsible for the membrane phospholipids metabolism and has been associated with neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. Despite the good and promising results presented and published, there are still some analytical and bioinformatic approaches to be performed in search for candidates for platelet schizophrenia biomarkers. The data from shotgun approach require further analysis, as well as verification and validation in larger cohorts. The sample enrroled in this study is greatly important and certainly informed us much about the proteomic alterations still in the first onset psychosis

À partir de l'affirmation sur l'universalité du délire à laquelle Lacan se réfère à la fin de son enseignement, une enquête rétrospective a été réalisée depuis Lacan en s'étendant jusqu'à Freud. Pour cela, il fallait vérifier ce que Lacan voulait dire par être fou. Une réflexion sur la clinique structurelle et continuiste chez les deux auteurs a été élaborée ainsi que la notion de diagnostic en psycanalyse en ayant pour fil conducteur les questions qui se réfèrent aux frontières cliniques et théoriques entre la névrose et la psychose. L'approche de Lacan aux catégories du délire et de la folie ouvre un chemin d'investigation vers le rapport de la folie et ce qui seraient ces phénomènes. La discussion entre la limite d'être ou ne pas être fou, entre névrose et psychose apparaît constamment dans la psycanalyse, et la théorie borroméene peut aider à comprendre cette question puisqu'elle permet une clinique à plusieurs tonalités dans laquelle de différents dégrés de folie sont possibles, ce qui semble être présent depuis Freud. Parmi ces autres travaux, il a mis l'accent sur l'article Die Verneinung (1925) qui permettrait de traiter certains phénomènes cliniques et impasses diagnostics selon une approche différente d'après les termes employés par Freud. La décision méthodologique adoptée dans cette thèse portait sur la recherche bibliographique, en faveur de Freud et Lacan, ainsi que sur certains de ses commentateurs qui avaient comme thèmes de référence les limites de la folie et le diagnostic différentiel en psychanalyse. Au cours de notre formation doctorale à Nice, en France, nous avons approfondi l’article de 1925 de Freud Die Verneinung par le biais de sa version bilingue allemand/français. De là, nous soulignons le terme utilisé par Freud, l’élevant à la dignité de concept, ce qui nous a conduit à établir une nouvelle hypothèse théorique et clinique, traitée avec méticulosité dans la thèse. Ainsi et à partir de l'affirmation lacanniene, il était possible de corroborer l'hypothèse selon laquelle tout le monde est fou, c'est-à-dire délirant, comme une conception qui apparaît depuis Freud. / Taking into consideration the statement on the universality of delirium, to which Jacques Lacan refers at the end of his teaching, a retrospective investigation on the subject was held since Lacan, extending to Sigmund Freud’s work. For this, it was important to examine what would be this "being mad" which Lacan refers to. Having the questions concerning the clinical and theoretical boundaries between neurosis and psychosis as the research’s guideline, a reflection on the structural clinic and the clinic of continuity was elaborated in both authors, as well as the notion of diagnosis in psychoanalysis. Lacan's approximation of the categories of delirious and madness opens a way of an investigation into the relation of madness and what would be its phenomena. The discussion between the limit of being mad or not, between neurosis and psychosis appears constantly in psychoanalysis, and the borromean theory can help in the understanding of this question since it makes possible a multi-tone clinic, in which different degrees of madness are possible. A notion that already seems to be present in the Freudian works. Among his other works, the article Die Verneinung (1925) was emphasized which, from the terms and conceptions employed by Freud, allowed to treat some clinical phenomena and diagnostic impasses by a different approach. The methodological decision adopted in this thesis focused on bibliographical research, in favor of Freud and Lacan, as well as on some of its commentators whose themes were the limits of madness and the differential diagnosis in psychoanalysis. During our research in Nice, France, we have deepened the 1925 article by Freud Die Verneinung through its bilingual German / French version. From here we emphasize the term used by Freud, elevating it to the dignity of concept, which led us to establish a new theoretical and clinical hypothesis, treated with meticulousness in the thesis. Thus taking into consideration the Lacanian affirmation, it was possible to corroborate the hypothesis that everyone is mad, that is to say, delirious, as a conception that appears since Freud.

Psychotic experiences (PEs) occur in the general population, beyond psychotic disorders. PEs are a risk factor for mental ill health in young people but can occur benignly in selected samples of adults. Environmental factors predispose to PEs but their underlying mechanisms are not well-understood. Progress in understanding PEs may be limited by diverse conceptualisations, imprecise measurement and a lack of explanatory frameworks that can bridge the gaps between aetiological factors, their effects on the brain and their behavioural manifestations. In this thesis, I undertook a comprehensive investigation of the measurement, health implications, aetiology and computational mechanisms of PEs in adolescents and young adults using data from two large cohort samples, supplemented with smaller-scale behavioural studies. I first investigated the measurement of PEs. I assessed and optimised the measurement of PEs in young people by two self-report instruments. I then used latent variable modelling to show that a self-report and interview instrument measured the same underlying psychotic phenomena. Both instruments were able to measure severe PEs, while the self-report questionnaire also measured more mild psychotic phenomena. I then investigated the health implications of PEs. Using cluster analysis in both cohorts, I found replicable patterns of PEs at similar levels of intensity and persistence but with and without depressive symptoms and with varying risk of mental disorder. Paranoid ideation was more associated with depressive symptoms than non-paranoid unusual perceptions and beliefs. Childhood adversity was associated with both PE-prone groups, but later social support from family and friends was far higher in those with PEs and low depressive symptoms than those with PEs and high depressive symptoms. Subsequently, I investigated the role of the social environment in the development of PEs and psychopathology using longitudinal structural equation modelling. I found that asocial dispositions increased or preceded increase in PEs over one year, mediated by detriment to social support. Conversely, PEs did not precede or increase asociality. I then showed that dimensions of PEs and depressive symptoms were promoted by childhood adversity but differentially affected by later social support, with paranoid ideation being more influenced by support than non-paranoid unusual perceptions/beliefs. Finally, I investigated specific mechanisms of PEs in two behavioural studies. In the seventh study, I used computational modelling of reward learning to link PEs to reduced ability to modulate learning by confidence, replicating computational effects of a pharmacological model of psychosis. I also used a novel visual task to show that the manifestation of PEs as anomalous perceptions versus anomalous beliefs might be explained by over-reliance on different types of prior knowledge in perceptual inference. These results suggest that different conceptual approaches to PEs might be synthesised despite issues with their measurement. PEs in young people, while not entirely benign, are heterogeneously associated with psychopathology. Importantly, they characterise a minority of young people who are at very high transdiagnostic risk of mental illness but also occur without distress in young people, often in the context of a supportive social environment. Health outcomes in young people with PEs are predicted and potentially modified by social functioning and social relationships. PEs might arise from atypicalities in how the influences of information sources on perception and belief-updating are modulated according to their reliabilities.

Submitted by Filipe dos Santos (fsantos@pucsp.br) on 2017-09-28T12:41:31Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Vitória Grídvia Bandeira.pdf: 1168436 bytes, checksum: b67df8a00857f7bdf92b37f61a078125 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-28T12:41:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Vitória Grídvia Bandeira.pdf: 1168436 bytes, checksum: b67df8a00857f7bdf92b37f61a078125 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-09-15 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / The present study presents a systematic review from the behavior analytic literature for schizophrenia treatment between 1960 to 2016. There were used these following data base: PsycINFO, Science Direct, PubMed, Lilacs, Pepsic, Banco Digital de Teses e Dissertações and were used these scientific journals: Revista Brasileira de Análise do Comportamento, Comportamento em Foco and Sobre Comportamento e Cognição. The sample were composed of 46 studies, in majority, adopted behavioral deficit/excess as a participant selection criteria. There was found a diminish in foreign publications and a concentration in non published national studies. Interventions, in majority, had a duration between 1 to 3 mouths, used male subjects and were conducted by the experimenters. Overall, the studies target one class responses, which were directly observed. Few reviewed studies involved staff training, generalization planning and evaluation and following measures. It was found that more recent studies had used experimental manipulations to test variables controlling behavior problems and doing interventions in alternative environments others than psychiatry hospitals. As the years gone by, there was a diminish in the use of aversive consequences and in the tangible consequences exclusive programming and there was a raise for the use of social consequences. It’s was found that the behavior analytic procedure used were followed by successful results, although it cannot be point out which one was better than the others. It is suggested more studies to fill the gaps pointed out in the present study in order to give a more consistent bias for the behavior analytic approach for schizophrenia treatment / O presente estudo apresenta uma revisão sistemática da literatura analíticocomportamental para o tratamento da esquizofrenia entre 1960 a 2016. A busca foi realizada nas bases de dados PsycINFO, Science Direct, PubMed, Lilacs, Pepsic, no Banco Digital de Teses e Dissertações e nos periódicos/coleções Revista Brasileira de Análise do Comportamento, Comportamento em Foco e Sobre Comportamento e Cognição. A amostra contém 46 estudos, os quais adotaram, em sua maioria, como critério de seleção dos participantes aqueles que apresentavam excessos ou déficits comportamentais. Observou-se uma diminuição de publicações estrangeiras após década de 1980 e uma concentração de estudos nacionais não publicados. As intervenções, cuja maioria durou de um a três meses, foram aplicadas individualmente, dirigidas principalmente para pacientes homens e adultos e conduzidas por experimentadores. Em geral, as intervenções foram dirigidas apenas para uma classe de resposta-alvo, a qual foi observada diretamente. Poucos estudos revistos envolveram treinamento de agentes, planejamento e avaliação da generalização e medidas de seguimento. Verificou-se que os estudos mais recentes têm empregado manipulações experimentais para testar as variáveis de controle do comportamento-problema e realizado intervenções em locais alternativos aos hospitais psiquiátricos. Ao longo dos anos, ocorreu uma diminuição no uso de consequências aversivas, uma diminuição da programação exclusiva de consequências tangíveis e um aumento no uso de consequências sociais. Constatou-se que os procedimentos analítico-comportamentais empregados foram geralmente acompanhados de resultados de sucesso, embora não seja possível apontar qual deles foi o mais eficaz. Sugere-se que sejam desenvolvidos mais estudos preenchendo as lacunas apontadas de modo a dar um embasamento consistente para o tratamento analítico-comportamental da esquizofrenia

Bakgrund: Ungefär 2000 personer i Sverige insjuknar varje år i någon form av psykos. Psykossjukdom förknippas ofta med fördomar och stigmatisering. Forskning har visat att ju mer stigmatisering psykossjuka patienter förväntar sig från omgivningen, desto mer ökar deras stigmatisering av sig själva, vilket i sin tur påverkar deras återhämtning negativt. Personer med psykossjukdom har också beskrivit att de ej fått fullgod somatisk vård på grund av sin psykiska sjukdom. Syfte: Syftet med föreliggande litteraturstudie var att beskriva sjuksköterskors upplevelser av att möta patienter med psykossjukdom inom den somatiska vården. Metod: En beskrivande litteraturstudie baserat på 5 kvalitativa och 5 kvantitativa vetenskapliga artiklar. PubMed och Cinahl var de databaser som användes i sökningarna till de inkluderade artiklarna. Huvudresultat: Okunskapen kring psykossjukdomar beskrevs vara stor inom den somatiska vården. Sjuksköterskor upplevde ofta känslor som rädsla, anspänning och osäkerhet, vilket gjorde mötet med dessa patienter problematiskt. Begränsningar som tidsbrist i den somatiska vårdmiljön beskrevs bidra till ogynnsamma förutsättningar i mötet med psykossjuka patienter. Slutsats: Stigmatisering, okunskap och brister i vårdmiljön kan leda till att omvårdnaden för patienter med psykossjukdom blir bristfällig, och att de inte får vård på lika villkor som andra. Det är därför viktigt att sjuksköterskor blir medvetna om sina egna attityder och fördomar, och att de somatiska verksamheterna erbjuder sjuksköterskor mer kunskap om ämnet. De somatiska verksamheterna bör även se över möjligheter till förbättring i vårdmiljön. / Background: Every year approximately 2000 people in Sweden fall ill to some kind of psychotic disorder. Psychotic disorders are often associated with prejudice and stigma. Research has shown a connection between the expected external stigma, internal stigma and the recovery of patients with a psychotic disorder. It has also been described that patients with a psychotic disorder has received insufficient care due to their psychiatric illness.     Aim: The aim of this study was to describe how nurses experience the encounter with patients that are suffering from a psychotic disorder within the somatic inpatient and outpatient care. Method: A descriptive literature study based on 5 qualitative and 5 quantitative scientific articles. The databases that was used to obtain articles was PubMed and Cinahl.    Main result: It appeared that there is a substantial lack of knowledge regarding psychotic disorders within the somatic care. Nurses often experienced feelings of fear, tension and insecurity, which made the encounter with these patients problematic. Limitations such as time constraints contributed to unfavourable conditions in the care of patients with a psychotic disorder.    Conclusion: Stigma, lack of knowledge and deficiencies in the care environment could make the care that patients with a psychotic disorder receive inadequate. Therefore, it is important that nurses in the somatic inpatient and outpatient care become aware of their own preconceptions and attitudes towards these patients, and that nurses get access to additional knowledge on this topic. The somatic units should also try to make improvements in the care environment.

Syrén, Susanne (2010). Det outsagda och ohörsammade lidandet. Tillvaron för personer med långvarig psykossjukdom och deras närstående (Being in the world with long term psychotic illness – the unspoken and unheard suffering), Linnaeus University Dissertations No 6/2010. ISBN: 978-91-86491-07-9. Written in Swedish with a summary in English. Aim: The overall aim of the thesis was to describe the lived experience of being in the world with long term psychotic illness. This is described from three perspectives; the perspective of persons diagnosed with long term psychotic disorder; the perspective of their relatives; and a family perspective. Method: Three studies were conducted guided by a reflective lifeworld approach grounded in phenomenology. The data were generated through individual, group, and family interviews. Data were analyzed for essential meanings of being in the world. Results: Persons with long term psychotic illness live in a borderland of paradoxes between the usual and unusual. For the ill persons the existence is incomprehensible and defenceless with feelings of not being at home in the body and in the world. They search for themselves in a care context that is contradictory, simultaneously good and hostile. These experiences are mostly unspoken, a struggle with doubts about having health or illness, what is good or evil, and about being usual or unusual. The relatives exist in a dilemma of the possible and impossible, a continual infinite struggle. Co-existing with their ill family member is a communion and a longing for togetherness is prominent. Relatives struggle with responsibilities for themselves and for their ill family member. In these unheard struggles the relatives yearn for participation in the formal care context. Family interviews with persons with long term psychotic illness and their relatives revealed a co-existence hovering between chaos and boredom while striving for a peaceful and quiet life. Thefamilies search for constancy and predictability in the presence of incomprehensible and threatening dangers. The experience of being a We balances the unshared meanings of being in the world and the loss of being able to experience and do things together. The experience of being a We keeps their individual existence and co- existence from falling apart.Conclusion: Persons with long term psychotic illness and their relatives have to withstand extensive existential suffering, which is unspoken and unheard. Formal caring should be existential caring, supporting the ill person’s comprehensibility and understanding of life, and feelings and experiences of being at home. Further, relatives should be acknowledged both as persons and carers and invited to participate in formal care. These results also point to the importance of strengthening feelings of togetherness and of being a We through systemic oriented existential conversations, where the ill person, their relative and a formal carer converse together.