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<p><strong>Abstract</strong></p> <p>An opportunity exists to enhance policy development and application in higher education as it relates to the promotion of sustainable building practices and the application of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED^®) principles. No previous research has been conducted to determine if policy instruments are essential for sustainable building practices, together with the use of LEED^®, for the implementation of institutional green buildings in North America.</p> <p>The primary research goal is to determine if policy is essential for sustainable building practices and the implementation of LEED^® for new construction and major renovations in higher education buildings in Canada and the United States. A specific focus on water conservation and water quality is undertaken related to green buildings. A comprehensive quantitative web-based survey was developed and administered to poll members of APPA (formerly the Association of Physical Plant Administrators) on their use of policies or other instruments for sustainable development and the specific use of LEED^®applications for new construction and major renovations on their campuses. Qualitative telephone interviews were conducted with a subset of the survey respondents to explore and supplement components of the survey and to gain greater insight as to the strategic application of sustainable facility initiatives at their respective institutions. A sustainable building policy template is developed for application to the higher education sector.</p> <p>Using a mixed-methods approach has provided clear evidence that these institutions are contributing to the growth in sustainable practices in higher education and that the facility professionals are contributing to much needed leadership in this field. Institutions that have implemented sustainable/green building policies for their new buildings or major renovations are exhibiting policy compliance and meeting their LEED^® targets, while some institutions that utilize non-policy practices are not complying.</p> <p>This research provides a framework for an institutional sustainable building policy that is suitable for use as a template for senior facility professionals and their specific policy development. This work contributes to a foundation for future research related to sustainable/green building policy development and its application to the higher education sector.</p> <p>A review of survey participants’ water conservation approaches was undertaken with a specific application to a rainwater harvesting-to-potable water system in the Engineering Technology Building (ETB) at McMaster University. <strong></strong>Field research was undertaken on the evaluation of three white roof membranes: modified bitumen finish ply, polyvinylchloride (PVC), and thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO); and their effects on the runoff water quality were studied. An analysis of the quality of rainwater runoff was performed from each of these three membranes and compared to Ontario provincial drinking water standards. Analyses were performed to determine if there is a preferred membrane for this function.</p> <p>Results of the water quality testing and analysis indicate that the selected white roof membranes will provide a suitable catchment surface for a green building and/or use in a rainwater collection system. When compared to Ontario’s MOE water quality requirements, no particular roof membrane of the three researched (modified bitumen, PVC and TPO) provided superior water quality results to suggest that either was preferred or recommended as a rainwater harvesting (RWH) catchment surface.</p> <p>This research has revealed that higher education institutions are engaging in water conservation practices across Canada and the United States. Operational challenges are evident, particularly as they relate to waterless urinals. The ETB system that harvests rainwater and provides treatment to potable standards is showing significant promise for future site–based solutions.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

A water supply plan approach was used to investigate irrigation application on landscaped areas in Virginia with a focus on turfgrass. The economically-important turfgrass industry in Virginia should be proactive in conserving drinking water supplies to meet human consumption needs, especially in drought times. This thesis investigates current irrigation water supplies, water supply sustainability, and alternative water sources to meet irrigation demands and offers an insight on how potable water is unnecessarily consumed for non-potable irrigation needs. A Virginia evapotranspiration website was developed to offer a scientifically based source for efficient irrigation scheduling. The website was developed using a collaborative and user-centered design method, which included potential users in the process. The final website is hosted on the Virginia Tech website at http://www.turf.cses.vt.edu/Ervin/et_display.html and utilizes data from weather stations throughout the state. Evapotranspiration-based irrigation was tested at three case study sites in Blacksburg, Williamsburg and Norfolk, Virginia to assess potential water conservation. In Williamsburg, a 55% water savings was reported with evapotranspiration-based irrigation. In Blacksburg, slightly more water was applied on research greens irrigated based on evapotranspiration demand. Significantly less water was applied in Norfolk, compared to the evapotranspirationbased irrigated plots. The study also uncovered increased confidence to alter irrigation systems and the need to conduct irrigation audits when irrigating based on evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration-based irrigation, reclaimed water and harvested rainwater were investigated to determine feasibility for meeting irrigation demands, while reducing potable water consumption at four case study sites in Blacksburg, Fairfax, Williamsburg and Norfolk, Virginia. Due to the limited collection potential at the Blacksburg site, reclaimed water and harvested rainwater was not feasible. However, the on-site weatherstation could offer a unique opportunity to calculate evapotranspiration. In Fairfax, all three alternative water sources could be integrated to supply enough water to irrigate a soccer field and adjacent athletic fields and save an estimated $7,000 per season in potable water costs. Harvested rainwater at the Williamsburg site could supplement the irrigation pond and reduce reliance on groundwater. In Norfolk, reclaimed water use is economically feasible, but rainwater harvesting could meet the irrigation needs, while evapotranspiration-based irrigation is too labor intensive for homeowners. / Ph. D.

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) refers to the collection of rainwater for subsequent on-site use. Rainwater is most often used for non-potable purposes including toilet flushing, laundering, landscape and commercial crop irrigation, industry, fire fighting, air-conditioning, and vehicle-washing. This study evaluates the potential impacts of RWH on residential housing on Virginia Tech campus in southwestern Virginia in regards to potable water offset, energy conservation, stormwater mitigation, carbon emission reduction, and financial savings. Potential rainwater collection was estimated from three simulations used to approximate the maximum, average, and minimum range of annual precipitation. Collected rainwater estimates were used to calculate the impacts on the areas of interest. Cumulatively, the sample buildings can collect 3.4 to 5.3 millions of gallons of rainwater — offsetting potable water use and reducing stormwater by an equivalent amount, save 320 to 1842 kWh of energy, and reduce carbon emissions by 650 to 3650 pounds annually. Cumulative savings for the nine buildings from combined water and energy offsets range between $5751 and $9005 USD, not substantial enough to serve as the sole basis of RWH implementation on campus. A significant advantage of RWH relates to the management and improvement of the Stroubles Creek watershed in which the majority of the campus sits. Additionally, RWH implementation would benefit sustainable initiatives and provide Virginia Tech additional opportunities for conservation incentives and environmental stewardship funding. / Master of Science

Climate change (CC) science has made significant progress in development of predictive models. Despite these recent advances, the assessment of CC impacts in urban watersheds remains an area of active research, in part due to the small temporal and spatial scales needed to adequately characterize urban systems. Urban watersheds have been the focus of considerable efforts to restore hydrology and water quality, and the aquatic habitat of receiving waters, yet CC impacts threaten to reduce the effectiveness of these efforts. Thus, assessing the impacts of CC in urban watershed assessment are essential for assuring the success of water quality improvement programs and is an important research need. Simulations of CC for the 2041-2068 period were developed using downscaled Global Climate Models (GCMs) from the North American Regional CC Assessment Program (NARCCAP) and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) to forecast precipitation and temperature time series. This data were then used to force a Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) of the Difficult Run watershed of Fairfax County, Virginia, a tributary of Potomac River, which flows into Chesapeake Bay. NARCCAP uses a scenario represents a medium-high greenhouse gas emissions assumption, A2; the latter, uses five GCMs, and two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP 4.5 and 8.5) scenarios in an ensemble approach to better assess variability of model predictions in presenting precipitation, temperature, runoff quantity and quality. Then, the effects of CC on runoff peak, volume, and nutrient and sediment loads delivered to the Chesapeake Bay and on the treatment performance of a very common stormwater control measure (SCM), retention ponds, was assessed. Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) systems are an unusual SCM in that they recycle and reuse stormwater, normally from rooftops, and increase water supply and reduce runoff. The efficiency of RWH systems for projected CC for these dual purposes was assessed. NARCAAP data for selected locations across the U.S. were statistically downscaled using a modified version of the equiratio cumulative distribution function matching method to create a time series of projected precipitation and temperature. These data were used to force a simulation model, the Rainwater Analysis and Simulation Program (RASP) to assess the impacts of CC on RWH with respect to the reliability of water supply and runoff capture. To support CC modeling, an easy-to-use software tool, RSWMM-Cost, was developed. RSWMM-Cost automates the execution of SWMM, which is commonly used for simulating urban watersheds. Several features were incorporated into the RSWMM-Cost tool, including automated calibration, sensitivity analysis, and cost optimization modules; the latter can assist in identifying the most cost-effective combination of SCMs in an urban watershed. As an example, RSWMM-Cost was applied to a headwater subcatchment the Difficult Run watershed. / Ph. D. / Urban watersheds have been the focus of considerable efforts to restore water quantity and quality, and the aquatic habitat of receiving waters, yet climate change impacts threaten to reduce the effectiveness of these efforts. The assessment of climate change impacts in urban watersheds remains an area of active research, in part due to the small temporal and spatial scales needed to adequately characterize urban systems. Thus, assessing the impacts of climate change in urban watershed assessment are essential for assuring the success of water quality improvement programs and is an important research need. In this study, simulations of climate change for the 2041-2068 period were developed to forecast precipitation and temperature data. These data were then used to force a hydrologic model for the Difficult Run watershed of Fairfax County, Virginia, a tributary of Potomac River, which flows into Chesapeake Bay. Then, the effects of climate change on runoff, nutrient and sediment loads delivered to the Chesapeake Bay and on the treatment efficiency of a very common management practice called retention ponds, was assessed. Rainwater harvesting systems are an unusual management practice that recycle and reuse stormwater, normally from rooftops, and increase water supply and reduce runoff. The efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems for projected climate change with respect to the reliability of water supply and runoff capture was assessed for the 2041-2068 period. To support climate change modeling, an easy-to-use tool, was also developed to select the most cost-optimized combination of best management practices in urban watersheds considering site constraints, limitations, and size. As an example, the tool was applied to a headwater subcatchment of the Difficult Run watershed. The ability to assess the impact of climate change on both hydrologic and water quality treatment could assist in the selection of the most appropriate management practices to address water management goals and conserve limited financial resources.

Urban flooding presents a significant challenge to cities worldwide, resulting in loss of life and economic damage. Factors such as urbanization, climate change, and extreme weather events compound the vulnerability of urban areas to flooding, with rapid urbanization emerging as a primary driver of increased flood risk. In response to this pressing issue, this thesis embarks on a transformative exploration, advocating for a paradigm shift in urban stormwater management through the lens of "Hydro-Urbanism." Central to this concept is recognizing stormwater as a valuable resource rather than a mere liability. By implementing targeted strategies to curb runoff, detain stormwater, and replenish groundwater, cities can mitigate the adverse impacts of urban flooding while enhancing resilience and livability. Through a comprehensive review of existing literature and analysis of case studies, this research explores the efficacy of diverse stormwater management techniques in alleviating urban flooding and fostering sustainable urban development. In addition to technical aspects, the study delves into the socioeconomic dimensions of Hydro-Urbanism, highlighting the significance of community engagement and participatory planning in creating resilient and inclusive urban environments. Focused on Hyderabad city in Telangana, India, this project lies at the intersection of cultural heritage and modernity, confronting significant challenges posed by urban flooding amidst rapid urban expansion. By reframing the narrative around water from vulnerability to resilience and opportunity, the project aims to harness the power of stormwater as a catalyst for change. A tailored typology-based approach seeks to nurture a future where cities and water coexist harmoniously, protecting urban areas from flooding and fostering a more harmonious relationship between urban communities and the natural world. / Master of Science / Urban flooding, characterized by the inundation of urban streets, buildings, and infrastructure, arises when rainwater overwhelms drainage systems or water bodies overflow due to heavy rainfall or storms. It is a significant challenge faced by cities globally, leading to property damage, transportation disruptions, and risks to public safety. In response to the pressing issue of urban flooding, this project adopts a novel approach called "Hydro-Urbanism," emphasizing the interconnection between water and urban landscapes and aiming to transform how cities manage stormwater resources. Unlike traditional methods that view stormwater as a problem to be mitigated, Hydro-Urbanism recognizes stormwater as a valuable resource that can be harnessed for various purposes. It seeks to establish a symbiotic relationship between urban environments and water, wherein stormwater is managed strategically to mitigate flooding risks and enhance urban resilience while improving the quality of urban life. Amid rapid urbanization, exemplified vividly in cities like Hyderabad in the Telangana state of India, the balance between expanding urban sprawl and natural ecosystems has become increasingly fragile. Here, the challenge of managing stormwater looms large, threatening public safety, infrastructure integrity, and economic stability. Nevertheless, what if we could flip this narrative? What if stormwater could be a resource instead of being a menace? Focused on Hyderabad, a city at the crossroads of tradition and modernity, this project proposes a typology-based approach tailored to its unique urban fabric. By harnessing the potential of stormwater, the project aims to pave the way for a more resilient and adaptive urban future. Ultimately, the goal is to foster a harmonious coexistence between urban communities and stormwater resources, ensuring cities' long-term viability and well-being in the face of environmental uncertainties.

No / Rainwater harvesting (RWH) can be used to reduce the demand for potable mains water. At the single-building scale, previous research has focused on water-saving potential, while financial assessment has either been omitted or considered in an ad hoc manner. This paper reports on the application of a more rigorous financial analysis of domestic RWH systems than had been conducted previously. Whole life costing was selected as the most appropriate financial assessment technique. A total of 3840 domestic system configurations were assessed at a daily time step, taking into account various stakeholder perspectives and future cost scenarios. In each case, it was found that harvesting rainwater was significantly less cost effective than relying solely on mains-only water. The domestic RWH systems generally resulted in financial losses approximately equal to their capital costs. Without significant financial support, domestic RWH is unlikely to be cost effective for all reasonably foreseeable scenarios.

Vattenbrist blir allt vanligare i vårt samhälle och belastningen på vattenresurser och dricksvattensystemen ökar, även i Sverige. Det finns stora möjligheter att ersätta användningen av dricksvatten med vatten av lägre kvalitet för vissa ändamål, till exempel vid toalettspolning och bevattning. Att samla upp och använda dagvatten från tak och andra hårdgjorda ytor kan vara ett steg emot att använda mindre volymer dricksvatten. Många faktorer måste dock beaktas när ett sådant system ska implementeras. Vid sådana tillfällen kan en multikriterieanalys utföras. Water Investments for Sustainability Enhancement and Reliability (WISER) är ett Excel-baserat beslutsverktyg som är utvecklat för att underlätta transparent beslutsfattande kring dricksvattensystem och är baserat på multikriterieanalys. Detta arbete utvärderade möjligheterna att använda regn- och dagvatten som komplement till dricksvatten. Frågeställningarna undersökte vilka typsystem som finns för regn- och dagvattenåtervinning samt vilka hållbarhetskriterier (tekniska, sociala, miljömässiga och ekonomiska) som är lämpliga för att utvärdera dessa system som ett alternativ till dricksvattenanvändning. Beslutsverktyget WISER testades även i samarbete med en lokal VA-organisation på ett nytt exploateringsområde i Kistinge industriområde.   Metoden var en litteraturstudie och tillämpning av WISER i fallstudien. Två workshops anordnades där lokala intressenter från Laholmsbuktens VA och Halmstads kommun deltog. Där valdes kriterier för att bedöma fyra alternativa regn- och dagvattenåtervinningssystem: fastighetsnära insamling av regnvatten från tak med enskild eller gemensam magasinering, samt ett storskaligt system som samlar i regn- och dagvatten i dagvattendammar med enkel eller avancerad rening.   Resultatet visade att typsystem för regn- och dagvattenåtervinning varierar i komplexitet, men består vanligtvis av en uppsamlingsyta, magasinering, grovfilter och pumpar. Potentiella kriterier att använda vid utförande av en multikriterieanalys för regn- och dagvattensystem utvecklades och tillämpades i fallstudien. Resultatet visade att WISER var användbart som beslutsstöd för regn- och dagvattenåtervinning. För Kistinge industriområde var de mindre regnåtervinningssystemen som hade tak som uppsamlingsyta att föredra framför ett storskaligt system som samlar in både regn- och dagvatten. Alla system presterade dock på liknande nivå som att använda dricksvatten i stället, vilket tyder på att regnvattenåtervinning med dessa system inte nödvändigtvis innebär en hållbarhetsmässig fördel. / Today, problems caused by water shortages are increasing in frequency and magnitude even in Sweden. However, there are great opportunities to replace the use of potable water with water of a lower quality, for example when flushing toilets and irrigation. Collecting and recycling stormwater from roofs and other hardened surfaces can be a step towards using less potable water. There are multiple factors that need to be considered when implementing such a system, and a way to oversee the different perspectives is by doing a multi-criteria analysis (MCA). This is a common decision support method when analyzing complex problems. Water Investments for Sustainability Enhancement and Reliability (WISER) is a multi-criteria analysis decision tool that was developed to facilitate transparent decision-making regarding drinking water systems. The aim of this project was to apply and evaluate WISER to analyze various aspects of using stormwater as a supplement to potable water. The main questions in this report included what types of systems are available for stormwater recycling. Moreover, what sustainability criteria (technical, social, environmental, and economic) are appropriate to use to evaluate those systems as an alternative to drinking water use? The decision tool WISER was also applied to see if it can be used to determine whether implementing a stormwater system is a sustainable alternative. The case study was an industrial area called Kistinge in the Southwest of Sweden.   The method was based on a literature study and applying the WISER tool in the case study. Two workshops were organized where local stakeholders from the municipality in Halmstad and the local water and wastewater organization LBVA participated in the selection of relevant criteria for the case study and to assess four alternative stormwater recycling systems in WISER: local or centralized collection from roofs, and centralized collection with and without advanced treatment. Calculations were also made to assess drinking water savings, based on local precipitation data and assumptions regarding collection areas and system designs. The result of the study showed that the available stormwater systems and their area of use vary. Most common type of stormwater recycling systems include a collection area, pipes and storage, a filter, and a pump. Potential criteria to use in a multi-criteria analysis for stormwater recycling systems were developed and evaluated on the case study. The results from the MCA showed that for this industrial area, the small stormwater recycling systems using roofs as the collection area were preferable over bigger systems which managed stormwater from the whole industrial area. However, all systems received a similar index compared to using potable water instead, indicating a weak sustainability performance.

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) in the UK has seen a low level of uptake relative to similar settings such as Australia and Germany. The relatively low cost of municipal water in the UK limits the financial savings associated with RWH systems, especially in a domestic setting. Although financial benefits can be relatively low (in terms of reduced water bills), academic and practitioner studies have demonstrated the potential for RWH to significantly reduce potable water demands at typical UK houses. Hence, increased uptake of RWH has potential to contribute to mitigating droughts in water scarce regions. Stormwater management in the UK is receiving increasing attention at all levels; from grass-roots sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) such as downpipe disconnections and raingardens; through to implementation of urban realm attenuation schemes and continued development of guidance from UK policy makers. The public realm nature of most SuDS presents a need for partnership approaches to be fostered between infrastructure mangers and the general public. The application of RWH as a technology within the SuDS management train has been limited in the UK as policy makers have taken the view that RWH tanks may be full at the start of a design storm, and thus the potential for attenuation and peak discharge reduction has been largely ignored. However, in the last few years there has been a shift in emphasis; from RWH perceived purely as a water demand management technology to a focus on its wider benefits e.g. mitigating surface water flooding through improved stormwater management. RWH systems examined in this thesis are now available which offer multiple benefits to both end-users and water service providers. The application of RWH in a dual purpose configuration (to displace potable water demands and control stormwater discharges) has seen increasing interest during the development of this thesis. However, the successful design of RWH as a stormwater management tool requires a series of calculations to be completed. To date, practitioners have frequently relied upon low-resolution heuristic methods which lead to a small range of configurations being deployed, with minimal demonstrable stormwater control benefits. In this thesis, full details of novel and traditional RWH technologies were identified and described. Empirical data was collected, both in laboratory conditions and at field sites, to identify the real world operating characteristics of a range of RWH configurations. Additionally a new time series evaluation methodology was developed to enable RWH systems to be designed and analysed. This method quantifies water demand benefits and also focusses on stormwater management metrics (i.e. largest annual discharge and total discharge volume per year). The method was developed to enable a range of RWH configurations to be evaluated at a given site. In addition, a decision support tool (RainWET) was developed and tested which enabled the methods to be deployed in real world settings. The application of the RainWET software allowed a UK-wide, time series analysis of RWH configurations to be completed and the holistic benefits of a range of dual purpose RWH systems to be analysed and described. Evidence from the UK study suggests that a traditional RWH installation (3000l storage, 300l/day demand and 60m2 roof) installed at a house in a water scarce region (London, SAAR 597mm) was able to fully mitigate stormwater overflows over a 20 year analysis whilst providing a mean water saving of 31,255l/annum. An equivalent system located in the wettest region studied (Truro, SAAR 1099mm) saw mean reductions in the largest annual storm of 62% (range 35-86%) whilst satisfying a mean rainwater demand of 50,912l/annum. The study concluded that suitably designed dual purpose RWH systems offered better stormwater management benefits than those designed without a stormwater control device. In addition, the integration of smart RWH controls were shown to maximise stormwater control benefits with little or no reduction in a system’s ability to satisfy non-potable water demands.

El desarrollo de la presente tesis tiene como objetivo disminuir el déficit de la infraestructura educativa primaria, mediante el desarrollo de módulos autosustentables en el distrito de Asunción de la provincia y departamento de Cajamarca; la cual forma parte de los sectores rurales del Perú con una altitud superior a los 2200 msnm de la sierra peruana del departamento de Cajamarca. En la tesis propuesta se plantea el desarrollo de módulos educativos que se adapten a los requerimientos y a la geografía del lugar, adecuándose a las condiciones climáticas y a la difícil accesibilidad. Este proyecto está destinado a beneficiar a la población del Distrito de Asunción, dotándola de infraestructura educativa cuya principal característica será la de ofrecer espacios adecuados para el desarrollo de las actividades propias de su función mediante módulos de fácil instalación. Estos módulos tendrán una vida útil de 10 años aproximadamente y estarán equipados para aprovechar los recursos naturales de la zona (captación de agua pluvial y también energía solar) de tal manera que sean edificaciones amigables con el entorno; aprovechando e integrándose al medio ambiente. / The objective of this thesis is to reduce the deficit of the primary educational infrastructure, through the development of self-sustaining modules in the Asunción district of the province and department of Cajamarca; which is part of the rural sectors of Peru with an altitude higher than 2200 meters above sea level in the Peruvian highlands of the department of Cajamarca. The thesis proposes the development of educational modules that adapt to the requirements and geography of the place, adapting to climatic conditions and difficult accessibility. This project is intended to benefit the population of the Asunción District, providing with educational infrastructure whose main characteristic will be to offer adequate spaces for the development of the activities of its function through easy-to-install modules. These modules will have a useful life of approximately 10 years and will be equipped to take advantage of the natural resources of the area (rainwater collection and solar energy) so that they are buildings that are friendly to the environment; taking advantage and integrating into the environment. / Tesis