<p>The access to water in the regions around Lake Victoria varies with the rainy seasons. Today the daily labor of fetching water is a heavy burden for people in the rural areas. In the process of this study farmers in the Western and Nyanza provinces in Kenya are interviewed, water samples are analysed and present rainwater harvesting techniques and purification methods are observed. As a result, suitable solutions to the problems found are discussed. An optimal system is chosen for the region with a concept selection matrix. An elaborated dimensioning tool for roof and purpose-built harvesting systems is developed. Finally a summarized manual is attached in order to raise interest for rainwater harvesting among the farmers that the non-governmental organisation SCC-Vi Agroforestry cooperates with.</p> / <p>Tillgången till vatten i områdena kring Victoriasjön varierar med regnperioderna. Det dagliga arbetet med att hämta vatten är idag en stor börda för människor på landsbygden. Under processen av denna studie intervjuas bönder i Western och Nyanza provinserna i Kenya, vattenprover analyseras och nuvarande regnvatteninsamlingstekniker och reningsmetoder observeras. Som ett resultat diskuteras passande lösningar på de problem som hittats. Ett optimalt val av komplett system för regionerna tas fram med hjälp av en konceptvalsmatris. Ett genomarbetat verktyg för dimensionering av tak- och ändamålsbyggda insamlingssystem utvecklas. Slutligen inkluderas en sammanfattande manual för att väcka intresse för regnvatteninsamling bland de bönder som den ideella organisationen SCC-Vi Agroforestry samarbetar med.</p>

Centralized infrastructure (CI) is difficult to sustain with limited water and fossil fuel resources because CI withdraws 100% of water demand from the environment as an open-loop system and electricity is consumed to transport and treat water and wastewater while demand is increasing. Hybrid infrastructure (HI) is proposed to combine CI with decentralized alternatives such as low impact development (LID) technologies (i.e., xeriscaping, rain gardens, and rainwater harvesting) or greywater reclamation systems with membrane bioreactors (MBRs). Water, wastewater, and stormwater systems in the City of Atlanta (COA) were regarded as CI. HI was compared to CI using life cycle environmental impacts measured by water reuse index (WRI) and life cycle assessment (LCA) scores. WRI is a ratio of water withdrawal to sustainable water resources of wastewater (i.e., return flow) and stormwater discharge, which presents water stress level (e.g., 0.2 ~ 0.4: medium-high level). LCA score is determined as % of annual world average environmental damage per capita. As stormwater runoff, water demand, greywater generation, rainwater harvesting, etc. vary depending on land use and population density, feasibility of decentralized alternatives was evaluated in eleven residential communities. Five single-family residential communities were designated as between R-1 of 16 people/10 acres and R-5 of 169 people/10 acres and six multi-family residential communities were designated as between RG-1 of 148 people/10 acres and RG-6 of 5,808 people/10 acres. HI with LID technologies reduced WRI of COA that relies on CI from 0.45 to 0.12. HI reduced the LCA scores of CI with combined sewer system (CSS) by between 1% for RG-6 and 68% for R-1 and the LCA scores of CI with separate sewer system (SSS) by between 0% for RG-6 and 18% for R-1. As population density increases for the multi-family residential communities, harvested rainwater decreases and a small amount of water demand is satisfied. Consequently, it has a negligible impact on the LCA scores in RG-6. HI with greywater reclamation system reduced WRI of COA from 0.45 to 0.35. HI resulted in the LCA scores greater as compared to CI in the five single-family communities and RG-1, RG-2, and RG-3 because of the electricity consumption of small-scale MBR. However, the electricity consumption per kgal decreases with increasing MBR treatment capacity and the LCA scores were reduced by 5% for RG-4, 15% for RG-5, and 21% for RG-6. The MBR treatment capacity of RG-4 is 15.6 kgal/day.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The urban growth and the disordered occupation of cities have increased the frequency and severity of flooding in urban areas, which occur mainly due to the modification on rainwater natural infiltration, as a result of soil imperviousness increase. The use of compensatory techniques (CT) for stormwater control has been encouraged through public polices, attempting to apply for sustainable solutions to mitigate the urbanization´s impact. An alternative already widespread in some Brazilian cities is the use of micro reservoirs (MR), which temporarily store volumes from impervious areas, and gradually emptying the water stored. Along this requirement, implementation of Rainwater Harvesting Reservoirs (RHR) to non-potable purposes is often encouraged in order to reduce the consumption of drinking water for less noble purposes, and to preserve the fountainheads. Some bibliographies suggest that in addition to these benefits, the RHR can be considered a CT also, once it stores the stormwater runoff, and therefore, in some cities where the MR is required, many buildings are already using the RHR to replace it. However, there are not many conclusive studies related to the real benefits and impacts that capturing rainwater and its use have on micro drainage networks, and specifically if such technique can be considered as a compensatory one. Thus, the main objective of this research was to evaluate whether RHR can be considered as an alternative to promote the quantitative stormwater control. For that, a comparative analysis was made between the impact that RHR use generates on micro drainage flows and networks, and the impact generated on a MR containing system. Such analysis was performed through a modeling of a urban watershed from Porto Alegre / RS, with 977 ha, 30.720 standard lots and around 70 km of micro drainage networks. The simulated MRs were designed according to the Decree No. 15.371/06 of the city of Porto Alegre, which aim to control the runoff at the source and it resulted in volumes of 3.13 m³ and 3.75 m³ for rainfall project with return period of 5 and 10 years (CP-CP-TR5 and TR10), respectively, answering to the allowable flow restriction at the lot outlet (VR = 0.624 L / s). The micro drainage networks were designed for both situations, with and without MRs, for CP-TR5 and CP-TR10. For sizing of the RHRs a continuous simulation of 12 years of precipitation data and demands series for non-potable uses data was performed, both with time step equal 5 minutes, resulting in volumes of 5.000, 10.000 and 15.000 liters due to the achieved service guarantee. These volumes of RHRs replaced the MRs and new modeling were performed considering observed rainfall data real from the continuum time series. It was found that the RHRs were not effective to maintain the VR at lots outlet, and the restriction value was exceeded for several times. For the simulated time seriess only the volume of 750 m³ would be appropriate to ensure only one offense within 10 years of simulation. That occurs because must have sufficient volume to store the expected drained volume, without spillage, regardless of the reservoir storage condition. However, if there is a very large storage capacity and demands are comparatively small, the reservoir does not empty. It was found, therefore, that exists an antagonism when trying to use the RHR for two functions: runoff control and water supply for non-potable purposes demand, since the attempt to ensure the fulfillment to the first function prevents the deployment of such large volumes. Overtopping of RHRs to 12 critical simulated events committed the microdrainage networks capacity, generating flooding in the streets along several drainage network ranges. Considering the same 12 critical events and MRs in lots were identified only four overflowing and lower overflows, which ended up committing a lower extent of drainage networks. Therefore, based on analysis of the continuous simulation with RHRs, it was found that it is not possible to consider it an equivalent technique to the MRs for storm water runoff control, unless the reservation volumes are extremely high, which would make its implementation on a few square meters lot impossible. / O crescimento urbano e a ocupação desordenada das cidades têm aumentado a frequência e a severidade das enchentes em áreas urbanas, que ocorrem, principalmente, devido à modificação nas condições naturais de infiltração das águas pluviais, decorrentes do aumento da impermeabilização do solo. Em busca de soluções sustentáveis para mitigar os impactos da urbanização, as políticas públicas vêm incentivando o uso de técnicas compensatórias (TC) para o controle do escoamento superficial. Uma alternativa já difundida em algumas cidades brasileiras é o uso de microrreservatório (MR), que armazena temporariamente os volumes oriundos do escoamento das áreas impermeáveis, esvaziando gradativamente a água armazenada. Paralelamente a essa exigência, a implementação de reservatórios para o aproveitamento da água da chuva (RAAC) com fins não potáveis vem sendo incentivada, com o intuito de reduzir o consumo de água tratada para fins menos nobres e preservar os mananciais. Algumas bibliografias sugerem que além desses benefícios, o RAAC pode ser considerado igualmente uma TC, já que armazenaria o escoamento pluvial, e por essa razão, em algumas cidades onde o MR é exigido, muitas edificações já estão utilizando o RAAC em substituição a este. No entanto, verifica-se uma falta de estudos conclusivos a respeito dos reais benefícios e impactos que a captação da água da chuva e seu aproveitamento têm sobre as redes de microdrenagem pluvial e, especificamente, se esta técnica pode ser considerada como compensatória. Assim, o principal objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar se os RAACs podem ser considerados como medidas para o controle quantitativo do escoamento pluvial. Para isso, foi realizada uma análise comparativa do impacto que a sua utilização gera sobre as vazões e redes de microdrenagem, com o impacto gerado em um sistema com MR. A análise foi realizada mediante modelagem matemática de uma bacia hidrográfica urbana da cidade de Porto Alegre/RS, com 977 ha, 30.720 lotes padrão e cerca de 70 km de redes de microdrenagem. Os MRs simulados foram dimensionados de acordo com o Decreto n° 15.371/06 da cidade de Porto Alegre para o controle do escoamento na fonte, resultando em volumes de 3,13 m³ e 3,75 m³, para chuvas de projeto com 5 e 10 anos de período de recorrência (CP-TR5 e CP-TR10), respectivamente, atendendo à vazão de restrição permissível na saída do lote (VR = 0,624 L/s). As redes de microdrenagem foram dimensionadas para as situações que contemplaram os MRs e para a situação sem os MRs, para CP-TR5 e CP-TR10. Para o dimensionamento dos RAACs foi realizada uma simulação contínua de 12 anos de dados de chuvas e série de demandas para fins não potáveis, ambas com intervalo de tempo de 5 minutos, tendo sido determinados os volumes de 5.000, 10.000 e 15.000 litros como os mais adequados para a edificação, em razão da garantia de atendimento atingida. Esses volumes de RAACs substituíram os MRs e novas modelagens foram realizadas considerando tanto eventos de projeto, como as chuvas reais da série contínua. Verificou-se que os RAACs não são eficientes na manutenção da VR na saída dos lotes, sendo que ao longo da série história simulada a mesma foi infringida várias vezes. Para a série histórica simulada apenas um volume de 750 m³ seria adequado para garantir apenas uma infração em 10 anos da simulação. Isso ocorre porque deve haver volume de espera suficiente para armazenar os volumes escoados, sem que haja vertimento, independentemente da condição de armazenamento do reservatório; no entanto, se existe uma capacidade de armazenamento muito grande, e as demandas são comparativamente pequenas, o reservatório não esvazia. Constatou-se, dessa forma, que existe um antagonismo quando se pretende utilizar o RAAC para as duas funções: controle de escoamento superficial e garantia de atendimento à demanda com fins não potáveis, visto que a tentativa de garantir o cumprimento da primeira função inviabiliza a implantação de volumes tão grandes. O extravasamento dos RAACs para 12 eventos críticos simulados comprometeu a capacidade das redes de microdrenagem, gerando armazenamento de água nas ruas ao longo de vários trechos. Considerando os mesmos 12 eventos críticos e os MRs nos lotes foram identificados apenas 4 extravasamentos e menores vazões extravasadas, o que acabou comprometendo uma menor extensão das redes de drenagem. Portanto, com base nas análises da simulação contínua com os RAACs, verificou-se que não é possível considerá-lo uma técnica equivalente aos MRs para o controle do escoamento pluvial, a menos que os volumes de reservação sejam extremamente elevados, o que tornaria impossível a sua implementação em um lote de poucos metros quadrados.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:09:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissATH.pdf: 18368287 bytes, checksum: b45251643897100029d341df26cf3598 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-08-31 / The current projects of rainwater plumbing systems are extremely simple and present only one exclusive concern: to divert the rainfall from the place where it occurs to the drainage public system. In general, it s possible to verify that they do not attend even the word semantic meaning. The no existence of a coordinated set of action aiming at ampler results makes rainwater plumbing system unconcerned with the surrounding area, not composing harmonically with the urban site in particular, and the environment as a general form. Generally, designers expect only rainwater goes toward out of the site, and that is a good result of a good system. Due the lack of attention to the impact that generates and does harm to society, they ignore its potential as instrument of water building conservation. They do not assess correctly its capacity as a source of supply of so expensive and scarce water, according with its necessities, conveniences or limitations that can exist. Therefore, the goal of this study is to propose a new function for the rainwater plumbing system, in special for Ribeirão Preto municipal school buildings, becoming it from a passive to an active system of environment protection. With a proper and molded conception for this new proposal, the system must contemplate the aspects related to the reduction of the impacts caused by the civil construction activities on urban sites, its preservation and providing environment education for people and also, as an worthy water building management tool. / Os atuais projetos dos sistemas prediais de água pluvial são em sua grande maioria, extremamente simples, apresentando uma única e exclusiva preocupação: a transferência da precipitação do local onde ocorre para o sistema público de drenagem, constituído por sarjetas, galerias e por fim, os córregos e rios. Verifica-se que, em geral, não atendem nem ao sentido semântico da palavra sistema. A inexistência de um conjunto coordenado de ações visando um resultado mais amplo faz com que o sistema predial de água pluvial se dissocie de seu entorno, sem se compor harmônicamente com o meio urbano em particular, e o meio natural de uma forma geral. Na concepção atual de seus projetistas, o simples encaminhamento destas águas para fora da edificação é o resultado esperado de um bom sistema. Alheios ao impacto que gera e que penaliza a socidade, passam ao largo de seu potencial como instrumento de conservação de água nas edificações. Ignoram sua capacidade de suprir as mesmas com tão caro e cada vez mais escasso recurso, de acordo com as necessidades, conveniências ou limitações que possam existir. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho consiste na proposição de uma nova função para o sistema predial de água pluvial, em especial nas escolas muncipais de Ribeirão Preto, transformando-o de um sistema passivo de captação e drenagem em um sistema ativo de conservação ambiental. Com uma concepção própria e moldada para esta nova proposta, o sistema deve contemplar os aspectos relacionados à redução dos impactos causados pela ocupação do solo no meio urbano, à preservação e educação ambiental e também, à gestão da oferta de água nas edificações.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:09:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissMASC.pdf: 3170204 bytes, checksum: 83bd0768232793a648b29a0d4da7f753 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004-05-06 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The potable water scarcity afflicts the begging of the 21st Century, being today, one of the main worries of the manhood. This way, it becomes necessary to reduce the per capita consumption. From the actions that promote the racional use of water, the technological ones seems to be , in the most of the cases, the most recomended to reduce the consumption without being necessary radical changes of the users. One of these technologies is the rainwater harvesting. This one erges as an action of good perspectives since it subistitutes the use of potable water in activities where it is not necessary a good quality water, younder, it will reduce the amount of stormwater in the public drainage net, working as a non-structural action of urban drainage. The lack of kwondlege as well a the real advantages that a rainwater system can bring to a builind, is the points to find out about this issue.. At this paper, it seeked to clear this techonolgy up with the study of national and international examples . It also seeked the cistern sizing, getting the best results to technical and economical issues, as well, as procedures to design and to mantain the devices that make part of the system used in this study. Besides that, it studied the changes that would be necessary to build the system, and the possibles changes at the work routine of the construction company. It also studied the financial feasibility of the investiment of this interprisement, checking the real economical advantages that can be get. It is waited that this research contributes to the development of this techonology, contributing to Racional use of water in residential tall buildings. / A escassez de água potável atormenta o início do Século XXI, sendo hoje uma das principais preocupações da humanidade neste século que começa. Dessa forma, surge a necessidade de redução do consumo per capita. Dentre as ações que promovem o uso racional da água, as tecnológicas parecem ser , na maioria dos casos, as mais recomendadas para reduzir o consumo sem que seja necessário mudanças radicais nos hábitos dos usuários. Entre estas, o aproveitamento de água pluvial surge como uma ação de boas perspectivas, pois substitui o uso de água potável onde a qualidade desta não é necessária e, a retirada desta diminuirá a quantidade de volume de água pluvial lançada na rede pública de drenagem, funcionando como uma medida não-estrutural de drenagem urbana. A falta de conhecimento técnico bem como das reais vantagens que um sistema de aproveitamento de água pluvial poderá trazer para uma edificação são as principais incógnitas desse assunto. Neste trabalho buscou-se clarear a tecnologia, com o estudo de diversos casos nacionais e internacionais. Também se buscou realizar o dimensionamento de forma mais correta e econômica, bem como listar procedimentos para elaboração e manutenção de todos os elementos constituintes do sistema utilizado no edifício objeto de estudo. Além disto, verificou-se as possíveis interferências nos processos construtivos, além de alterações das rotinas de trabalho da construtora, além do estudo da viabilidade financeira do empreendimento, verificando as reais vantagens da implantação do sistema neste caso. Espera-se que esse trabalho contribua para o desenvolvimento de uma tecnologia específica para o uso racional de água.

A escassez de água no planeta já é uma realidade pontual, inclusive já despontando no horizonte, em nosso país, fora do polígono da seca: na região metropolitana de São Paulo, o modelo de adução, a partir de bacias circunvizinhas, está perto de exaurir, pelos custos que esse tipo de solução adotada desde a época do império romano acarreta nas tarifas para o consumidor final. Assim, a busca pelas chamadas soluções racionais têm, cada vez mais, ganhado adeptos e, dentre estas, a que se tem mostrado mais eficiente e mais eficaz é a tecnologia do esgotamento sanitário a vácuo, visto ser a bacia sanitária a responsável por aproximadamente 40% do consumo residencial de água, e por um percentual semelhante também em edifícios comerciais. A partir do estudo de caso no edifício-sede da Secretaria de Orçamento Federal SOF, em Brasília, foi constatada economia de 30% no consumo médio de água, medido em metros cúbicos, depois da implantação do sistema a vácuo - em substituição ao sistema gravitacional, ocorrida em janeiro de 2008 a par de um aumento de apenas 2% no consumo de energia elétrica, medido em kWh, não produzindo ônus, por força do contrato com a concessionária local de eletricidade, do tipo azul. Foram feitas, ainda, comparações com alternativas de abastecimento, quais sejam água de reuso e o aproveitamento de águas pluviais, este mais comum no Brasil embora nitidamente mais recomendável para construções com até dois pavimentos, enquanto aquele, por enquanto, pode ser considerado uma prospecção teórica para as condições de nosso país / The water shortage in the planet is already a punctual reality that is already rising in our country outside the drought polygon (in northeastern part of Brazil). In the metropolitan area of São Paulo the adduction model coming from the neighboring basins is on the brinks of exhaustion, because this kind of solution costs, adopted since the Roman Empire times, brings up to tariffs to the final customer. In this manner, the search for the so called rational solutions has gained more and more followers and among these the one that has shown more efficiency and accuracy is the vacuum sewerage technology, considering that sanitary basin is responsible for almost 40% of the residential water consumption and a similar percentage occurs also in trade buildings. Taking the case study in the headquarter building of Secretaria de Orçamento Federal (SOF), in Brasília, it was verified a 30% economy in the average water consumption, measured in cubic meters, since the vacuum system was established (replacing the gravitational system), on January 2008, informed about only 2% increase in the electricity consumption, measured in kWh, it means that there was no effective increase in the electricity bill, once the local provide company contract, of the blue type, has foretold small oscillations in the supply without deduction on the bill. It was still done some comparative descriptions with others alternatives water supplies, whichever be grey water and rainwater harvesting, this one widely used in Brazil although it is more suggested to up to two floor buildings while the other, for the time being, can be considered as a theoretical prospection in our country

El Perú es uno de los países con mayores reservas de agua dulce en el mundo, ocupando el octavo lugar con una reserva de 1.89% de la disponibilidad mundial de agua dulce superficial. Sin embargo, a pesar de que existe abundante oferta del recurso hídrico, las brechas de acceso al agua son cada vez mayores. Los pueblos de la sierra peruana, no son ajenos a esta realidad, ya que, no cuentan con un eficiente abastecimiento de agua. Frente a esta problemática, el objetivo de la presente investigación es proponer un sistema de abastecimiento de agua en la I.E. Manuel de Piérola Castro, aprovechando la alta precipitación del distrito de Celendín. Para ello, se visitó la zona de estudio para determinar la oferta hídrica pluvial, estimar la demanda de consumo de agua de la I.E. Manuel de Piérola Castro y conocer la realidad problemática del distrito de Celendín. En el distrito de Celendín se registra precipitaciones medias de 6.28 mm por día, equivalentes a 5.1 litros de agua por metro cuadrado de cubierta de captación, lo cual, representa una alta capacidad de aprovechamiento de agua de lluvias para uso sanitario. A su vez, la instalación del sistema de aprovechamiento propuesto resulta factible debido al bajo costo que este representa. Finalmente, se evidencia beneficios de utilizar agua de lluvia, puesto que, significarían un ahorro en el pago a la entidad administradora de agua potable, se garantiza la continuidad del servicio de agua y se contribuye al manejo sostenible de los recursos hídricos. / Peru is a country that has one of the largest freshwater reserves in the world with it ranking 8th globally with a reserve of 1.89% of the total global amount of surface freshwater in the world. However, despite the abundance of this resource, the gaps in access to water are increasing. This situation is common among people living in the Peruvian highlands because they don’t have access to freshwater. The objective of this current investigation is to propose the use of a water supply system at I.E. Manuel de Piérola Castro that takes advantage of the high amount of rainfall in the district of Celendín. To do this, the study area was visited in order to determine the rainwater supply, estimate the demand for water consumption at I.E. Manuel de Piérola Castro and learn about the problematic reality that the Celendín district is going through. In the district of Celendín, 6.28 mm of average rainfall is recorded per day, which is equivalent to 5.1 liters of water in one square meter of catchment cover. This demonstrates the potential of using rainwater for sanitary use as the catchment cover of the Educational Institution Manuel de Piérola Castro covers more than 1300 square meters. Additionally, the installation of the proposed harvesting system is feasible due to its low cost. Finally, there are many benefits to using the proposed system such as savings on bills to the drinking water administration entity, guaranteed continuity of water, and sustainable water mismanagement. / Tesis

<div>This dissertation focused on examining the potential unintended consequences of sustainability on drinking water quality at the tap. The rising trend in water conservation awareness has given rise to the use of water-efficient appliances and fixtures for residential potable water systems. The first study (Chapter 1) characterized the microbial dynamics at a water-efficient residential building over the course of one year and examined the effects of water stagnation, season, and changes in physicochemical properties on the occurrence of opportunistic pathogen markers. When rainwater harvesting is utilized as an alternative water resource in buildings, a combination of municipal water and rainwater is typically required to meet water demands. However, altering source water chemistry can disrupt pipe scale and biofilm and negatively impact water quality at the distribution level. The second study (Chapter 2) in this dissertation evaluated the potential water quality consequences of using intermittent supplies of municipal water and rainwater within building plumbing systems. Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pipes are considered by some to be more sustainable than copper pipes and are commonly installed in building plumbing. The goal of the third study (Chapter 3) was to better understand chemical release from commercially available PEX pipes, to characterize toxicological characteristics of the contact water, and to compare microbial growth potential among the three pipe types. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many commercial and office buildings were closed for extended periods of time, allowing water age to increase over the course of several months. Heightened water age is often associated with an increase in chemical and microbial contamination. The objective of the fourth study (Chapter 4) was to evaluate the impacts of an extended COVID-19 related building closure and stagnation on water quality. The goal of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of flushing and shock chlorination remediation strategies on water quality at the tap. </div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation contains four chapters and each chapter is a single manuscript. The first two chapters have been published.</div><div><br></div><div>“Drinking water microbiology in a water-efficient building: Stagnation, seasonality, and physiochemical effects on opportunistic pathogen and total bacteria proliferation.” (Chapter 1) Utilizing a residential building that had been retrofitted with low-flow fixtures, the unintended water quality consequences of increased stagnation in low-flow plumbing were evaluated over a year long period. The study results indicated that microbial growth and potential opportunistic pathogen markers, Legionella and Mycobacterium spp. were detected at higher levels within the home as compared to the municipal water main. Reduced water usage induced longer stagnation times and longer stagnation times were correlated with an increase in Legionella spp., Mycobacterium spp., and total cell counts.</div><div><br></div><div>“Impacts of Municipal Water−Rainwater Source Transitions on Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Dynamics at the Tap.” (Chapter 2) Altering source water chemistry can disrupt pipe scale and biofilm and negatively impact water quality at the distribution level. Still, it is unknown if similar reactions occur within building plumbing following a transition in source water quality. To date, no prior studies had evaluated the water quality impacts of transitioning between rainwater and municipal groundwater sources in low-flow plumbing. The study revealed that influent water chemistry impacted rates of metal release from plumbing. Because of differences in source water treatment and water chemistry, rainwater and municipal water uniquely interacted with building plumbing and generated distinctively different drinking water chemical and microbial quality profiles. </div><div><br></div><div>“Contaminant Leaching and Toxicological Assessment of Drinking Water in Contact with Cross-linked Polyethylene (PEX) Pipes.” (Chapter 3) Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) plastic water pipes are increasingly being installed instead of copper pipes for conventional and green building construction. Unlike metal pipe, PEX pipe is easier to install and not vulnerable to corrosion. However, potential health concerns associated with PEX pipe are: 1.) the organic contaminant release that occurs during its service-life, 2.) increased microbial growth compared to metal pipes, and 3.) compound toxicity. Our study goal was to better understand chemical release from commercially available PEX pipes, to characterize toxicological characteristics of the contact water, and to compare microbial growth potential among the three pipe types at varying chlorine concentrations. Results indicated that PEX contact waters did not affect the neurobehavioral development of zebrafish, but affected development in the zebrafish model. Further studies should be conducted to determine how influent water chemistry impacts carbon migration and the water’s toxicity.</div><div><br></div><div>“Water quality during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of flushing and shock chlorination strategies in reducing building water problems.” (Chapter 4) The COVID-19 pandemic led to widespread “stay at home” orders across the United States. As a result, many office buildings, schools, and commercial buildings were left empty, allowing water age within the plumbing to increase dramatically. Heightened stagnation and water age can lead to increased metal leaching from pipe walls, as well as increases in microbial growth and opportunistic pathogen proliferation. Water quality in a large school building was monitored after approximately six months of being closed due to COVID-19 related restrictions. Upon sampling the building, chemical and microbial water quality indicators were affected by the initial six month stagnation period. To monitor the relationship between shock chlorination and water quality at the tap, samples were collected at fixtures at different time points to gain a better understanding of the effects of shock disinfection on drinking water chemistry and microbiology. This study raises concerns with respect to the impact of extended building closures on drinking water quality and the best approach to remediate and monitor water quality issues thereafter.</div>

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Gambia is the smallest country on the African mainland, surrounded by Senegal on all it's borders except the coastal one. Gambia faces a pressing issue with water supply shortages, along with more than one third of the world’s population. The aim of this study is to propose a system that will solve water supply shortage through a local water supply system. The method mainly consisted of a literature review, aimed to provide an overview of the subject as well as to highlight existing gaps within today’s research about rainwater harvesting systems. Furthermore, a case study was used to determine the best way to design the rainwater harvesting system. The results of the study are showcased through a tank and pipe system, where water is collected on the roof of the residential homes and stored in a polyethylene tank on the ground. The results from the survey, asking questions related to the inhabitants’ water usage habits, were analyzed and represented through a table. In Brikama rainwater can be used for laundry, cooking and watering plants. The positive effects it brings include, but are not limited to, reduction of soil erosion, restoring the ground water cycle, as well as making people become more self-sufficient. In this study, a system for Brikama can be optimized by using Solvatten technology in combination with conventional rainwater harvesting methods. The tank volume suggested by Mun and Han (2011) is a feasible premiss, however it can not be directly applied to Gambian rainwater conditions as there are differing presumptions between the reference country Korea, and Gambia. Additionally, the validity of the study is affected as the reference studies suggest using computer simulations, as well as computer models as a basis for the operational and input data. / Gambia är det minsta landet på det afrikanska fastlandet, omgivet av Senegal på alla dess gränser utom den kustnära. Gambia står inför ett akut problem med vattenbrist, tillsammans med mer än en tredjedel av världens befolkning. Syftet med denna studie är att föreslå ett system som löser problematiken med vattenförsörjning genom ett lokalt vattenförsörjningssystem. Metoden bestod huvudsakligen av en litteraturöversikt, som syftade till att ge en överblick över ämnet samt att lyfta fram befintliga luckor inom dagens forskning om system för uppsamling av regnvatten. Dessutom användes en fallstudie för att bestämma det bästa sättet att designa systemet för uppsamling av regnvatten. Resultatet av studien visas genom ett tank- och rörsystem, där vatten samlas upp på taket av bostadshusen och lagras i en polyetentank på marken. Resultatet från undersökningen, med frågor relaterade till invånarnas vattenanvändningsvanor, analyserades och representerades genom en tabell. I Brikama kan regnvatten användas för tvätt, matlagning och vattning av växter. De positiva effekter det medför inkluderar, men är inte begränsade till, minskning av jorderosion, återställande av grundvattnets kretslopp, samt att få människor att bli mer självförsörjande. I denna studie kan ett system för Brikama optimeras genom att använda Solvatten-teknik i kombination med konventionella metoder för uppsamling av regnvatten. Tankvolymen som föreslagits av Mun och Han (2011) är en genomförbar premiss, men den kan inte tillämpas direkt på gambiska regnvattenförhållanden eftersom det finns olika antaganden mellan referenslandet Korea och Gambia. Dessutom påverkas studiens validitet eftersom referensstudierna föreslår att man använder datorsimuleringar, samt datormodeller som underlag för drift- och indata.