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This piece tries to determine whether or not Japan’s movement towards rearmament is indicative of a renewed militaristic sentiment or driven by the necessity of improving its defense in view of mounting threats from its age-old enemy, China. The goal of this work is to create a framework using both international events and domestic responses in which to ascertain whether or not the reformation of Article 9 is, in of itself, a reemergence of pre-war bushido/nationalist sentiment or a response to both outside and inside influences necessitating the need for a “normalized” state. The work focuses on three distinct time periods – early 2000s, latter 2000s, and the 2010s – in which to highlight the initial development, progression, and foreseeable resolution to the Article 9 debate. These stages emphasize several elements persistent in Japan’s quest for a more normalized state, including: the hostile external environment created by the rise of foreign assertiveness, and internal domestic pressures (which to some extent are driven by external pressures) along with its own desire to seek a more normalized position in the international community as well as to gain an enhanced sense of national pride. Additionally a brief synopsis of both the foreign and domestic entities which have contributed to the Japanese reformation movement has been included for better foundational understanding of the question at hand. In general, results suggested that, though there is some merit towards a reemergence of pre-WWII nationalistic sentiment (especially in the case of the Net Uyoku), the reformation of Article 9 is primarily driven in response to growing tensions – both within East Asia as well as world-wide – as well as a need to assert some semblance of nationalistic identity (an area seriously lacking in Japanese society). Results further implicate that, though the process of reforming Article 9 and thereby revising Japan’s anti-war policy may not be immediate, movement within the Japanese state towards constitutional reformation is indeed on the rise – rearmament being the primary target of said reforms.

Currently, there is little research on other countries' defence policies in Swedish. This essay will hopefully provide you with an interest in examining other countries' defence policies. The focus will be on Finland, Sweden's neighbour. Considering that Finland and Sweden are both members of the Nordic Council and strive for prosperity in the Nordic region, we should know more about our neighbours. Finnish defence policy reports are published every four or five years. This essay contains two of those reports from 2001 and 2017. The purpose of this essay is to find similarities and differences between the reports, but also to relate the reports to the theories, realism and liberalism. The theoretical analysis examines four different subjects where realism and liberalism will be discussed: International cooperation, rearmament, disarmament, and threat.  This analysis showed that Finland shows a lot of differences between the two reports. There are differences between all the subjects that are observed and the way the reports are written differs as well. The theories also shift a lot between the reports and that is concluded in the essay's conclusion. Suggestions about future research are included in the essay's discussion.

Idag finns 165 Pansarterrängbil 203 (Patgb203) med varianter i tjänst för Sverige. De är framförallt trupptransportörer, men vid behov ska de även kunna ge svarseld. Därför är 203 beväpnad med automatkanonen Hispano-Suiza HS.404, som ursprungligen användes i flygplan. År 1998 upphörde tillverkningen av den tillhörande 20 mm ammunitionen till automatkanonen. Detta innebär att alla Pansarterrängbil 203 med varianter som är bestyckade med 20 mm automatkanonen behöver en ny beväpning innan ammunitionen tar slut. I föregående rapporter av Svensk Konstruktionstjänst AB har utvärderingar till problemet tagits upp där slutsatsen har resulterat att ombeväpna Patgb203 med 12,7 mm Tung kulspruta och behålla den befintliga vapenhuven. Denna rapport avser en konceptstudie vid en ombeväpning av vapenhuven till 20 mm automatkanonen. Rapporten tar systematiskt upp utvecklingen av ett koncept som är väl underbyggt av problemidentifieringar, analys av gränsytor, användarstudie och resultat. Rapporten fokuserar på vapenhållaren i vapenhuven, där låsningen av vapnet, att befintliga funktioner kan bevaras. Även ammunitionsinmatning och tomhyls- och krutgashantering är delsystem av problemet. Pansarterrängbil 203A (Patgb203) är ett 6-hjuligt trupptransportfordon som används av den svenska försvarsmakten för trupptransport, sjuktransport eller reparationsgrupp. En ombeväpning till Tungkulspruta kommer att kunna återge likvärdiga prestanda och ger tillgång till en mer tillgänglig ammunition. Även en större mängd ammunition kan tas med i vagnen vid övning eller strid. En analys av projektilbanan påvisar att det bestrukna området ökar vid en ombeväpning med 34%. Fästhål och fria zoner på grund av in- och utmatning identifieras och lokaliseras. En mängd koncept konstrueras och utvärderas med hjälp av de krav som förstudien har genererat. Delsystem kartläggs och poängsätts för att slutligen rendera i ett slutkoncept. Under konceptutvecklingen var utrymmesbristen i vapenhuven uppenbar. För att kunna få plats med en ny beväpning krävdes att avancerade vinklar togs ut för att undvika de befintliga funktionerna. Att ha en hängande ammunition under vapnet och som följer med i elevationen visades vara den bästa lösningen för att undvika eldavbrott. Slutkonceptet blev Vapenhållare 12.7 för Vapenhuv m/47D. Den kan enkelt integreras i huven med dess befintliga funktioner. Ammunitonen placeras precis under vapnet där en ammunitionshållare är monterad på vapenhållaren. Den kommer på så vis följa med under elevationen och därav minska risken för eldavbrott. Ammunitionshållaren kan vridas i 60 grader för att underlätta hantering av befintliga ammunitionslådor som kan användas i sitt orginalutförande. Tiltningen gör också att de befintliga gränsytorna kan undvikas. Bandlänk tillsammans med tomhylsorna leds ner till hylsuppsamlingslådan med hjälp av en flexibel hylspåse där krutgaserna sugs ut ur Patgb203. Resultatet av den slutliga konceptet är en likvärdig beväpning som ger en mer tillgänglig ammunition. En förbättring är mängden laddad ammunition i vagnen och den mängd ammunition som nu kan medföras. De nya funktionerna är intuitiva och enkla att förstå. Denna konceptstudie är en vidareutvecklings plattform för delsystemen. Med fullskaliga försök och användartester kan trovärdigheten öka för konceptet. / Today there are 165 armored personnel carrier, Patgb 203 with variants, in service for Sweden. They are primarily used as troop carriers, but when required they should be able to return fire. Hence the 203’s have been armed with the automatic gun Hispano-Suiza HS.404, originally used in aircrafts. At the end of the 20th century the production of the special 20 mm ammunition for this weapon was decommissioned. This meant that all the 203’s armed with the 20 mm automatic gun require a new armament. During the last years alternative solution to the problem have been presented while the ammunition slowly starting to run out. In previous reports, from Svensk Konstruktionstjänst AB, a conclusion of the alternatives is to rearming the 203’s with aheavy machine gun (HMG) and keep the existing weapon hood. This report includes a concept study regarding rearmament of the weapon hood for the 20 mm autocannon. This report covers a systematically development process with concepts that are well substantiated with interface and user studies to suggest a final concept for a rearmament of 203’s. The focus of the report is primarily on the weapon holder, which will fasten the weapon to preserve existing features and also subsystems such as ammunition feed, handling of the empty cases and propellant gases. Also fixation holes and free zones on the HMG are located and constructed for the new ammunition feed and ejection. Armored personnel carrier 203A (Patgb203) is a 6-wheeled truck used by the Swedish military for troop transportation, ambulance or repair transportation. The rearmament to a heavy machine gun allows equivalent performance and offers more accessible ammunition. Even a larger amount of ammunition can be included during the exercise/combat in the vehicle. Analyses of the trajectory demonstrate that the coated area increases at a rearmament with 34%. A variety of concepts is developed and evaluated using the requirements that the conducted information retrieval has generated. Subsystems are identified and scored aid a generating final concept. One of the biggest challenges during the concept phase wasthe lack of space. A lot of complicated angles has to be found to avoid all the original features. A hanging ammo concept was shown to be the best solution that prevents unforced firing breaks. The final concept is weapon holder 12.7, which allows a HMG be adapted to a Patgb203. It can easily be integrated into the hood with its existing features. The ammunition can be placed just below the armament where ammunition holder is mounted on the weapon holder. It will thus follow the elevation and reduce the risk for misfiring. The ammunition holder can be rotated 60 degrees to facilitate the ammunition change and let the ammoboxes be used in its original condition. To avoid the existing interfaces the ammo holder can be tilted up. The tilt process also prevents the holder interfering with the existing interface. The empty cases after firing are directed down by a chute to a collector box where the propellant gases are blown outfrom the 203. The result of the final concept is an equivalent armament that allows more available ammunition. The 203’s is now able to return more fire to targets before reloading compared to the existing armament. Also the amount ammunition carried by the vehicle is increased. The new functions are intuitive and easy to understand. This concept study forms a firm base for a further development of the rearmaments subsystems. The concepts credibility can be enhanced with full scale tests and user trials.

After surrendering in World War II, Japan's new American-crafted constitution forced the formerly imperialistic country into pacifism. In accordance with Article 9 of the constitution, Japan was to be completely demilitarized and was therefore barred from keeping a standing military of its own. Over the course of the seven decades that have passed since the implementation of Supreme Commander MacArthur’s nonviolent constitution, Japan has slowly regained military strength. Rather than being the direct result of domestic politics and civic wishes, however, the rearmament of Japan has come as a result of foreign influences. Namely, the United States, North Korea, and China have forced the docile country to recoup its former martial power. Without these three countries’ actions over the years, Japan would never have had the backing or reasoning to rearm itself. The intent of this thesis is to explore the various actions that these three countries have taken that have led to Japan’s remilitarization. By taking a historical and chronological approach, this thesis will examine the actions each country has taken since the end of World War II and how they have gone on to spur Japan’s rearmament. Actions, such as domestic policy changes, military activities, and public announcements by the three countries, will be analyzed alongside Japan’s reactionary policies and responses.

Militära organisationer påverkas ständigt av samhällets förändring och dess trender. En allt snabbare social och teknisk utveckling kan vara utmanande för en hierarkisk och byråkratisk institution vilket är grundläggande karaktärsdrag för militära organisationer. Den svenska Försvarsmakten har efter decennier av nedskärningar nu gått in i en omfattande tillväxtfas vilket också innebär stora förändringar för organisationens personal. Denna fallstudie har syftat till att uppnå en djupare förståelse för hur sjöofficerare, som första linjens chefer utövar sitt ledarskap för att hantera underställd personal och organisationens krav kopplat till Försvarsmaktens nuvarande tillväxtfas och normativa förändringar i samhället. Studien, som undersökt hur nästa generations officerare hanterar förändringar, söker tillföra ytterligare kunskap till de senaste årens forskning, om ledarskap och organisatoriska karaktärsdrag, som hittills riktat sig mot officerare på strategisk och operativ nivå. Under april 2021 genomfördes semi-strukturerade intervjuer med totalt 9 sjöofficerare som utbildat sig genom det nya utbildningssystemet och som efter 7–12 års yrkeserfarenhet tjänstgör som chefer inom ett sjöstridsförband. Det insamlande underlaget har genomgått en kvalitativ innehållsanalys som presenterats i två olika teman. Studien resultat visar att det är en utmaning på flera nivåer att få en anorektisk organisation att övergå i tillväxt. Första linjens chefer inom sjöstridsförband påverkas och upplever flera obalanser som kan ses som ett resultat av både social och teknisk acceleration i samhället. Detta hanteras genom fokus på ställda uppgifter och ett engagerat samt modernt ledarskap fokuserat på att skapa en samhörighet. Ledarskapet ses som det främsta verktyget för att bibehålla och rekrytera personal. Det råder en obalans mellan organisationens planering och individens synsätt på karriärsutveckling. Detta kan påverka både organisationens och individens möjlighet till utveckling. Tjänstgörande i Försvarsmakten ställer högre krav på arbetsgivaren än vad tidigare generationer har gjort avseende stimulerande arbetsuppgifter, transparens i beslut och att bli sedd av organisationen vid karriärplanering. Här upplever första linjens chefer begränsade möjligheter att påverka från sin nivå. Skiljelinjen mellan arbete och fritid är viktigare idag än tidigare, samtidigt är personalen beredd att göra uppoffringar. Lojalitet och engagemang finns men är inte villkorslös. Första linjens chefer försöker skapa balans för underställd personal genom ett ge och ta förhållande. / Military organizations are constantly affected by changes in society and social trends. Increasing social and technological development can be challenging for a hierarchical and bureaucratic institution, which are fundamental characteristics of military organizations. After decades of cuts, the Swedish Armed Forces has now entered an extensive rearmament phase, which also means major changes for all personnel within the organization. This case study has aimed to achieve a deeper understanding of how naval officers, as managers on tactical level, exercise their leadership to manage subordinate personnel and the organization's requirements linked to the Armed Forces' current rearmament phase and normative changes in society. The study, which examined how next-generation officers handle change, seeks to add additional knowledge to recent years' research on leadership and organizational characteristics, which has so far focused on officers at the strategic and operational levels. During April 2021, semi-structured interviews were conducted with a total of 9 naval officers, who has all been educated through the new officer education system at the Swedish Defence University. After 7–12 years of professional experience, they serve as commanders within a naval warfare flotilla. A qualitative content analysis has resulted in the collected data being presented in two different themes. The study results show that there is a challenge on several levels to get an anorexic organization to grow. Managers on tactical level are affected and experience several imbalances that can be seen because of both social and technical acceleration in society. This is handled through a focus on given tasks. Managers show a committed and modern leadership focused on creating solidarity and coherence. Leadership is seen as the main tool for retaining and recruiting staff. There is an imbalance between organizational planning and the individual view of career development. This challenge both the organization and the individual possibility to develop experience. Personnel taking service in the Armed Forces places higher demands on the organization than previous generations have done regarding stimulating activities, transparency in decisions and being seen by the organization in career planning. Here, managers experience limited opportunities to influence from their level. Work life balance is more important today than before, at the same time the staff is prepared to make sacrifices. Loyalty and commitment exist but are not unconditional. Managers on tactical level aim to create balance for subordinate staff through a give and take relationship.

Denna studie behandlar hur fysisk planering samspelar med social integration och social hållbarhet samt hur det appliceras i ett utvecklingsområde. Undersökningen har skett i delområdet Lindängen i Malmö med fokus på Lindängen centrum där de sociala och fysiska rummen har granskats för en upprustning av stadsmiljön. Det finns en brist på kunskap inom ämnet gestaltad livsmiljö kopplat till socialt hållbart samhällsbygge samt har tidigare forskning visat att kommuner har svårt att avsätta medel till förvaltning av offentliga rum. Generellt bör gestaltning, kvalitet och hållbarhets lyftas i högre grad vid utgivning av forskningsmedel. Lindängen centrum blir en intressant fallstudie eftersom området relaterar till problem som dålig samverkan i byggprocessen i samband med fastighetsägarens ekonomiska synpunkter vilket har resulterat i att platsen inte utvecklats. Det finns många teorier som visar på hur stadens och offentliga rummens utformning kan förutsätta mänskliga handlingsbeteenden för social integration. Aktiva gator, kantzoner och fasader behövs för interaktion mellan människor där placering av dörrar, fönster och bänkar kan vara avgörande. Detta uppnås med fysiska objekt i rummen och olika bebyggelsestrukturer i form av levande fasader, primära och sekundära ytor samt soft edges. Dessa aspekter genererar livet och flödet i de fysiska rummen. Följande teorier som presenteras i arbetet har tillämpats i fallet Lindängen och utifrån detta skapades ett gestaltningsförslag. Detta gestaltningsförslag visar på hur olika former av upprustning kan leda till ett främjande av social integration som i sin tur stärker den stadens sociala hållbarhet. / This study is focused on how physical planning cooperates with social integration and social sustainability as well as how it applies in a development area. Our research has occurred in the sub-area Lindängen in Malmö centered on Lindängen Centrum where the social and physical space has been audited for rearmament of the urban environment. There is a lack of knowledge within the subject of urban design connected with social sustainability. Antecedent research has indicated that municipalities are struggling with funding the governance of public spaces. Design, quality, and sustainability should generally be emphasized to a higher degree at the publication of research funds. Lindängen centrum becomes an interesting case study, seeing that the environment relates to problems, for instance, bad concurrence concerning economic problems which results in that the location has not been developed. There exist many theories that conclude how the city and the design of the public spaces can presuppose human action behavior for social integration. Active streets, borders, and facades are crucial for the interaction among people where the placement of doors, windows, and benches can be vital. This is achieved by physical objects in spaces and various building structures in the shape of living facades, primary and secondary surfaces as well as soft edges. These aspects generate life and the flow in the physical spaces.The following theories presented in this study have been applied in the Lindängen case and based on this created a design proposal. This design proposal shows how various improvements in the urban spaces can lead to a furtherance of social integration, which in turn can strengthen the city's social sustainability.

After the repeal of the Corn Laws ended the policy of protectionism which had enabled Britain to feed herself from within her own resources, free trade resulted in domestic food production constituting only 30% of the British diet. This study looks at the political discourse from 1880 to 1939 when the ¿empty countryside¿ became a symbol of agricultural decline. Emerging radical and socialist narratives put forward approaches for rural regeneration and increased food production. Other narratives suggested that agricultural decline was one manifestation of national decline whereby a self sufficient and proud nation was being betrayed by Capitalism. Both Left and Right offered up the prospect of different solutions predicated upon shared perceptions of ¿Englishness.¿ The experience of Irish famine failed to inform political action or policy making. The study notes the importance of War upon the development of food policy. Increasingly, the State joined forces with the NFU in a corporate endeavour which sought to manage, rather than increase, food production and created structures which became increasingly important in the context of rearmament. Increased food production was rejected upon defence grounds in that free trade and a navy were seen as appropriate safeguards. Those countries which sought to follow self sufficiency ¿ or autarky ¿ are portrayed as warlike in their intentions; by 1939 all mainstream political parties rejected the notion of artificially increased food production. Those who continued to press for increased food production concentrated either upon earlier pre Capitalist societies or were attracted by Fascism and strong leadership. After such searches became increasingly problematic there was emphasis upon the soil, with the adoption of an approach which was both practical and mystical.

A la mi-septembre 1944, la France métropolitaine se trouve en grande partie libérée. Au terme de quatre années d'occupation, l'outil militaire national est à reconstruire. Soucieux de préparer l'avenir et, à court terme, de contribuer significativement à la victoire alliée, le gouvernement provisoire de la République française entend s'y atteler sans attendre, en négociant, un nouveau plan de réarmement avec les Alliés et en mettant à profit le potentiel humain constitué par les Forces françaises de l'Intérieur (FFI). Les négociations avec les Alliés aboutissent laborieusement au plan de réarmement du 30 novembre 1944, dont la mise en œuvre va tourner court au printemps suivant. Quant à l'intégration des hétérogènes FFI dans l'Armée, elle donne brièvement lieu à un bras de fer politique durant l'automne 1944. Le gouvernement provisoire n'est en effet pas la seule entité politique française à envisager la refondation d'une armée nationale. Sans attendre le gouvernement, une part des cadres et des organes issus de la Résistance intérieure a en effet d'emblée engagé des initiatives militaires, dérégulées et décentralisées, bien que non nécessairement divergentes par rapport à l'action gouvernementale. La présente thèse propose d'étudier ces projets et ces organisations, ainsi que les voies de leur intégration au sein des projets gouvernementaux, en prêtant une attention particulière aux dynamiques régionales. Cette thèse est divisée en quatre parties. La première partie, intitulée Tous en rangs !, est consacrée aux jeux d’acteurs français. Cette partie a pour centre de gravité la question du rétablissement par le gouvernement, avec un mode opératoire tantôt dirigiste, tantôt négocié, d'une administration militaire territoriale, sous la forme de régions militaires, destinées à servir de matrices incubatrices pour la formation de nouvelles unités. La seconde partie, intitulée Formez vos bataillons !, traite des modes de construction des projets de réarmement de 1944-1945. Outre une réinterrogation du plan de réarmement du 30 novembre 1944 et des raisons de son échec, cette partie est consacrée aux initiatives décentralisées de grandes unités (avec une douzaine de projets de divisions FFI) et au parcours souvent sinueux ayant conduit des bataillons de marche FFI de l'automne 1944 aux nouveaux régiments du printemps 1945. Une troisième partie, intitulée Engagez-vous !, décrit les modalités de réunion des ressources humaines nécessaires aux projets de réarmement, sans se limiter aux FFI ni à la seule question de l'amalgame pratiqué au sein de la 1re Armée française. Enfin, la dernière partie, intitulée Aux armes !, présente les modalités d’accès aux ressources matérielles requises pour l’équipement des forces recréées en métropole, en se focalisant sur les voies alternatives au matériel américain qui n'a guère été perçu en 1945 que sous forme d'échantillons. Cette partie aborde successivement l'emploi de matériels britanniques de seconde main, les essais de relance d'une production industrielle française dès l'automne 1944 et le recours à la récupération de matériels de prise, abandonnés par les forces allemandes. Au final, la présente thèse expose une dynamique de refondation militaire hybride, sensiblement différente de celle opérée en Afrique du Nord en 1943. Dans un environnement mouvant et concurrentiel, en l’absence des livraisons escomptées d'armement américain, le projet gouvernemental initial a été largement amendé, intégrant une part des initiatives décentralisées et entrepreneuriales issues de la Résistance intérieure, tout en les canalisant. / In September 1944, the main part of France has been liberated. Thus, for the French provisional government as for the Allied headquarter, time was to rearmament by using the French manpower and the metropolitan industrial plants. The place for innovation is weak: what was planned, was just the continuity of allied schemes and of the pre-war French military institution. But, without waiting for governmental or allied instructions, a part of the Resistance's leaders has developed different local or global rearmament programs, especially by using the volunteers of the French Forces of Interior, in order to contribute to the final victory as to the renaissance of a new French army earned by the Resistance's ideas.The present thesis deals with the organizations and the projects born in this frame: their conditions of apparition, their ways of development and their integration’s modalities within the French Army and within the Allied strategy. A large importance is accorded to the regional and decentralized dynamics observed through the French territory. As a result, compared to the rearmament occurred in North Africa in 1943, the French rearmament's approaches took on the French ground a different and novel path, including initiatives and entrepreneurship.

The strategic decision-making mechanisms a state has at its disposal to shape and develop its military means of power are complex. Perceptions of the outside world may be particularly problematic because perceptions of threats change. Political decisions which aim to create robust and long-term security strategies where several factors must be taken into account that are largely determined by the interests of other actors can be difficult to understand and explain. The investment in defence set out in Swedish Defence Bill 2020 is a paradigm shift from reducing to enlarging the armed forces This involves a continued investment into a dedicated professional defence, but in combination with conscription, new establishment of regiments, more military units and increased materiel investment. The purpose of this study is to, examine the driving forces and explanatory factors linked to this paradigm shift, where political decisions to enlarge the military are in focus and examined using Graham Allison and Philip Zelikow's three theoretical perspectives on strategic decision-making. The results of this study clearly show that the dominant driving force for the re-expansion of Sweden's defence capability was the deteriorating external situation, which was evident in terms of all three theoretical perspectives. It is also possible to see traces of other driving forces in the bill, such as long-termism, sustainability and the degree of detailed control of the Armed Forces, which demonstrates the complexity of political decision-making about the creation of military power.