<p>It is rather undisputed that the United States has maintained its position of global primacy since the end of the Cold War. According to the current Bush- administration and the US National Security Strategy, this power will be used to fight terrorists as well as to encourage free and open societies on every continent. With this position held by the government, it becomes essential to know more about the US power to better understand world politics. What opinions an American foreign policy elite has on international politics in general and on the US power in particular, can be consideredto have a certain influence on the US governmental policy making and is hence an interesting object of analysis for an improved knowledge of the US power position. This thesis aims to analyse different foreign policy elite interpretations, both of the present US situation and of what can be expected in the near future. In addition to opinions on the power position itself, the question addressed is whether there seem to be any impact of modern theories of international politics among the elite and if these theories are relevant at all for policy- orientated estimations. The result of the analysis indicates at least some impact of neorealism, neoliberalism and social constructivism, while there tend to be no influence of feminist IR-theory. However, as a base assumption in this thesis, most modern theories of international politics are conceived as partly related to a realist tradition in the field of academics, and this might diminish the influence of the separate theories among the elite. Accordingly, nor can extreme theoretical differences be confirmed, neither can the differences be disregarded. A majority of the foreign policy elite representatives describe the present US position as unrivalled in all critical dimensions, with an unsurpassed military, economic, technological and cultural power. The opinions on the expected power position in the near future are more diverging and suggest different courses of development. However, as long as the US keeps the precedence of interpretation and attracts others to American values and ideas, in addition to a solid base of economic and military strength, the US power position will most probably last for a foreseeable future.</p>

This thesis examines product innovation processes in small established enterprises. The research questions are: (1) what motivates small established enterprises to innovate, (2) how do small established enterprises perform product innovation, and (3) how do small established enterprises manage resource scarcity in their product innovation processes? To answer the research questions, a multiple case study approach was chosen with three small established enterprises as cases and different product innovation processes as embedded units of study. The data collection method used was observation during a period of five months, complemented by interviews and secondary data. Product innovation in small established enterprises seems to be motivated by solving existing customers’ problems and the need for a sustained steady cash flow. A steady cash flow is also found to be a prerequisite during the product innovation processes. Product innovation seems to occur when there is a risk of decreased cash flow and/or when existing customers can be satisfied with new products that increase their loyalty so as to secure future sales, cash flow, and the enterprise’s survival in the long run. Promising innovation ideas alone do not result in product innovation. An innovation idea must also have supportive existing customers for product innovation to occur. Product innovation processes in the studied small established enterprises are found highly context dependent, intertwined in operational processes and made possible by a small organic organization and closeness to existing customers. The product innovation processes are further found to follow a flexible and informal overall scheme optimized for decreasing market and technology uncertainty and risk, dealing with resource scarcity, and facilitating fast and easy commercialization to avoid or moderate dips in cash flow. The design processes within the innovation processes can be linearly structured or cyclical and experimental, depending on the experienced novelty. To manage resource scarcity during the product innovation processes, the studied small enterprises used many different bootstrapping methods in combination. These methods can be divided into three categories according to their overall functions: for using existing resources more efficiently, for increasing resources and to secure a fast payback on resources invested in NPD. The studied small enterprises were due to their resource scarcity further found to favor an innovation strategy, only involving new products done with known technology and targeting existing markets. This way to innovate, which creates new products in a resource-efficient way that are accepted by the enterprises’ existing markets, seems to prevent unsuccessful product innovation, while at the same time excluding technologically radical innovation and innovation targeting new markets.

[pt] A forma de estruturação e gerenciamento dos canais de distribuição constitui para as firmas uma importante fonte de vantagem competitiva. Em linha com a sua visibilidade, o franchising vem atraindo a atenção de pesquisadores das mais diversas linhas teóricas, interessados em aprofundar a compreensão quanto as suas implicações econômicas e estratégicas. Esta pesquisa visa contribuir para ampliar os entendimentos quanto aos fatores que influenciam a adoção e o desenvolvimento do sistema, assim como da relação entre o seu grau de utilização e o desempenho das firmas. Com base na revisão da literatura, desenvolveu-se um modelo estrutural utilizando fatores preconizados pelas teorias da escassez de recursos, custos de transação e da agência. Esta modelagem do problema permitiu o teste das relações hipotetizadas e a mensuração das contribuições dos fatores na explicação do franchising e do desempenho das firmas. A investigação empírica utilizou informações de domínio público sobre 88 redes de fast food que operam no Brasil. De forma geral, os resultados corroboraram diversas proposições teóricas quanto aos efeitos dos fatores selecionados sobre do nível de utilização do franchising pelas firmas. Adicionalmente, revelou-se um impacto conjunto dos fatores antecedentes e da forma de estruturação das redes sobre o desempenho dos franqueadores. A análise da influência da maturidade das firmas permitiu diferenciar a importância relativa das relações estruturais do modelo entre franqueadores novos e maduros. Finalmente, foram discutidas as implicações acadêmicas e gerenciais das conclusões, bem como apontadas sugestões para futuras pesquisas. / [en] The distribution channel structuring and management represents to firms an important source of competitive advantage. Measure with its visibility, franchising has captured the attention of researchers from a wide variety of theoretical backgrounds, interested in deepening the understanding of its economic and strategic implications. This research aims at providing further comprehension about the factors that lead to the franchising adoption and development as well as the relationship between its level of utilization and companies´ performance. Based on literature review, a structural model was developed using factors nourished by the resource scarcity, transaction costs and agency theories. This problem-modeling approach allowed the testing of hypothesized relationships and the measuring of factors the contributions to the explanation of franchising and the performance of companies. The empirical investigation was developed using public information regarding 88 fast food chains operating in Brazil. Overall, the findings offered support for several theoretical propositions concerning the effects of each selected factors over the use if franchising level. Furthermore, the results revealed a combined impact of the selected factors and the network structure on franchisors´ performance. The examination of the company´s experience influence allows differentiating the relative importance of some structural relationships among young and mature franchisors. Finally, the academic and managerial implications of the conclusions were discussed and suggestions for future studies were provided.

This thesis examines product innovation processes in small established enterprises. The research questions are: (1) what motivates small established enterprises to innovate, (2) how do small established enterprises perform product innovation, and (3) how do small established enterprises manage resource scarcity in their product innovation processes? To answer the research questions, a multiple case study approach was chosen with three small established enterprises as cases and different product innovation processes as embedded units of study. The data collection method used was observation during a period of five months, complemented by interviews and secondary data. Product innovation in small established enterprises seems to be motivated by solving existing customers’ problems and the need for a sustained steady cash flow. A steady cash flow is also found to be a prerequisite during the product innovation processes. Product innovation seems to occur when there is a risk of decreased cash flow and/or when existing customers can be satisfied with new products that increase their loyalty so as to secure future sales, cash flow, and the enterprise’s survival in the long run. Promising innovation ideas alone do not result in product innovation. An innovation idea must also have supportive existing customers for product innovation to occur. Product innovation processes in the studied small established enterprises are found highly context dependent, intertwined in operational processes and made possible by a small organic organization and closeness to existing customers. The product innovation processes are further found to follow a flexible and informal overall scheme optimized for decreasing market and technology uncertainty and risk, dealing with resource scarcity, and facilitating fast and easy commercialization to avoid or moderate dips in cash flow. The design processes within the innovation processes can be linearly structured or cyclical and experimental, depending on the experienced novelty. To manage resource scarcity during the product innovation processes, the studied small enterprises used many different bootstrapping methods in combination. These methods can be divided into three categories according to their overall functions: for using existing resources more efficiently, for increasing resources and to secure a fast payback on resources invested in NPD. The studied small enterprises were due to their resource scarcity further found to favor an innovation strategy, only involving new products done with known technology and targeting existing markets. This way to innovate, which creates new products in a resource-efficient way that are accepted by the enterprises’ existing markets, seems to prevent unsuccessful product innovation, while at the same time excluding technologically radical innovation and innovation targeting new markets. / <p>QC 20140102</p>

It is rather undisputed that the United States has maintained its position of global primacy since the end of the Cold War. According to the current Bush- administration and the US National Security Strategy, this power will be used to fight terrorists as well as to encourage free and open societies on every continent. With this position held by the government, it becomes essential to know more about the US power to better understand world politics. What opinions an American foreign policy elite has on international politics in general and on the US power in particular, can be consideredto have a certain influence on the US governmental policy making and is hence an interesting object of analysis for an improved knowledge of the US power position. This thesis aims to analyse different foreign policy elite interpretations, both of the present US situation and of what can be expected in the near future. In addition to opinions on the power position itself, the question addressed is whether there seem to be any impact of modern theories of international politics among the elite and if these theories are relevant at all for policy- orientated estimations. The result of the analysis indicates at least some impact of neorealism, neoliberalism and social constructivism, while there tend to be no influence of feminist IR-theory. However, as a base assumption in this thesis, most modern theories of international politics are conceived as partly related to a realist tradition in the field of academics, and this might diminish the influence of the separate theories among the elite. Accordingly, nor can extreme theoretical differences be confirmed, neither can the differences be disregarded. A majority of the foreign policy elite representatives describe the present US position as unrivalled in all critical dimensions, with an unsurpassed military, economic, technological and cultural power. The opinions on the expected power position in the near future are more diverging and suggest different courses of development. However, as long as the US keeps the precedence of interpretation and attracts others to American values and ideas, in addition to a solid base of economic and military strength, the US power position will most probably last for a foreseeable future.

Bakgrund: Under senare år har cirkulär ekonomi fått allt större uppmärksamhet som ett lovande koncept för att öka den globala hållbarheten och motverka resursbrist. På organisationsnivå handlar arbete mot en cirkulär ekonomi, cirkulärt arbete, om att följa nya principer för att bedriva hållbarhetsarbete och en möjlighet att förena detta med ekonomiska fördelar. Cirkulärt arbete kan därför förväntas skilja mellan offentliga och privata organisationer. Konceptet innebär också att nya mål formuleras och nya strategier används för att nå dessa, varför den formella ekonomistyrningen kan komma att behöva anpassas till det cirkulära arbetet. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att förklara hur offentliga respektive privata organisationer kan arbeta cirkulärt samt hur och varför formell ekonomistyrning anpassas till cirkulärt arbete. Detta för att bidra med kunskap till organisationer som vill utveckla en mer cirkulär verksamhet samt för att göra ett teoretiskt bidrag till forskningen om cirkulär ekonomi i organisationer och formell ekonomistyrning i cirkulärt arbete. Metod: Studiens metod är en tvåfallsstudie i en offentlig respektive en privat organisation. Slutsatser: Studiens slutsatser är att cirkulärt arbete i offentliga organisationer riktas mycket mot utveckling av cirkulär ekonomi i samhället samt att privata organisationer försöker förena hållbarhetsansvar med ekonomiska fördelar genom att utnyttja resurser i högre utsträckning samt förbereda sig inför ett samhälle som stödjer cirkulär ekonomi. Det cirkulära arbetet kan också skilja på grund av organisationens förutsättningar. Den formella ekonomistyrningen anpassas främst genom man försöker påverka medarbetare till att engagera sig i cirkulärt arbete. Vidare krävs tydligare planering samt nya mått för att driva och utvärdera det cirkulära arbetet. Planering och beslutsfattande kräver också en ökad detaljnivå och ett längre tidsperspektiv i styrning mot cirkulärt arbete. / Background: In recent years, circular economy has gained increased attention as a promising concept for global sustainability and solution for resource scarcity. Moving towards a circular economy in organizations is about following new principles for increased sustainability which can lead to economic benefits. The work towards a more circular organization may differ between public and private organizations. The concept also leads to new goals and strategies, which may lead to a need for the formal management accounting and control to be adapted in organizations that adopt the concept. Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to explain how public and private organizations can work towards a circular economy and how and why formal management accounting and control is adapted to this work. This can lead to a contribution of knowledge for organizations that want to adopt the concept and a theoretical contribution about circular economy in organizations and formal management accounting and control. Method: The method is a case study in two cases: one public and one private organization. Conclusions: The conclusions of this study are that public organizations aim for a development of circular economy on a societal level and private organizations try to accommodate social responsibilities with economic benefits by increasing recourse utility and prepare for a society where circular activities are supported. Preconditions in organizations determines what circular activities are possible. The formal management accounting and control has been adapted mainly in cultural controls to engage co-workers. Clear goals and measures are developed to drive and evaluate the circular work. Planning and decision-making are also more detailed and have longer time perspectives.