A research report submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, School of Social Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the field of Demography and Population Studies, 2016 / Background: Risky behaviours are notably the most important factors contributing to negative health outcomes among adolescents. A number of diseases and deaths have been linked to risky and harmful behaviours. Research has shown that being involved in one risky behaviour increases the likelihood of involvement in additional risky behaviours. Adolescents have been identified at the centre of sustainable development, particularly in achieving goals related to bringing poverty to an end, promoting health and well-being, attaining equitable and quality primary and secondary education as well as achieving inclusive and sustainable economic growth. Objectives: The objective of this study was firstly to examine the levels of social association membership and risky behaviour among adolescents. Secondly, to identify the determinants of risky behaviour among South African adolescents and lastly, to examine the relationship between social association membership and risky behaviour among adolescents. Methods: Data were drawn from the South African Youth Life Style Survey of 2008. A sample of 3335 adolescents aged 12 to 19 years was analysed. Four binary and one multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted. The four binary dependent variables were for risky sexual behaviours, risky substance use behaviours, other risky behaviours and engaging in at least one type of behaviour. For each of these binary dependent variables the response category was yes or no. The dependent variable for the multinomial logistic regression model was any adolescent risky behaviour which was categorised as; no behaviour, any one category of behaviour, any two categories of behaviour and all three categories of behaviour. The key independent variables were firstly an index variable generated by merging all the different social associations into one variable that had the response yes or no to being a member of any social association. There were also five key independent variables that were the individual social associations namely; sports, religious groups, choir, drama and other associations. Results: The two most common social associations that adolescents engaged in were sports groups (515 per 1000 adolescents) and religious groups (342 per 1000 adolescents). Risky vii behaviours with the highest number adolescents engaging in them were driving without a seatbelt (32%), consuming alcohol (32%), being a passenger in a car driven by someone under the influence of alcohol (28%), tobacco use (21%) and lack of condom use (9%). Adolescents who were not members of social associations were found to have decreased the risk of engaging in one, two and all three categories of risky behaviours. Not being a member of religious groups increased the risk of engaging in one, two and all three categories of risky behaviour. Adolescents who were not members of sports groups were found to have lower risks of engaging in one, two and all three categories of risky behaviour, as well as decreased odds of engaging in at least one type of risky behaviour. Conclusion: The study found that there was a statistically significant relationship between social association membership and risky behaviours among adolescents in South Africa. More particularly, religious associations were found to be protective factors to risky behaviours and sports, drama and other associations were found to be platforms that could potentially increase the likelihood of risky behaviour among adolescents. / GR2017

Innovation is crucial for the long-term survival of MNEs. Especially, in small nations like the Netherlands, innovation is important to be competitive in the international market. The innovative capacity of MNEs dependents on each employee’s ability to act in an innovative type of way, which makes it essential to enhance employee innovative behaviour. A participative leadership style is one way of enhancing employee innovative behaviour. This relationship could be strengthened by different work climates. This thesis investigates a pro-active and risk-taking work climate because those climates have similar characteristics as a participative leadership style. The purpose of this thesis is to explain the relationship between participative leadership and employee innovative behaviour, and how this relationship is contingent on a risk-taking and pro-active work climate in the context of Dutch MNEs. The research is done through a quantitative method by sending a survey to five Dutch MNEs, active in different branches. The results show a positive significant relationship between participative leadership and employee innovative behaviour, and a positive significant moderating effect of a pro-active work climate on this relationship. Besides, only when certain departments are selected, a positive significant moderating effect of a risk-taking work climate is found. This thesis contributes to the literature by showing a positive significant direct effect of participative leadership on employee innovative behaviour. Moreover, this thesis investigated a pro-active and risk- taking work climate as moderating variables on this relationship which has not been done before.

A perspectiva evolucionista entende a propensão humana ao risco como estratégia comportamental selecionada para responder a certas dicas ambientais e individuais sobre a disponibilidade de recursos. Dentre as dicas ambientais, a imprevisibilidade é um dos aspectos mais influentes na propensão ao risco. No entanto, não há consenso sobre a importância da imprevisibilidade real do ambiente atual ou de um viés perceptivo sobre a imprevisibilidade, construído ao longo do desenvolvimento. Além disso, é importante considerar o estudo destas relações de forma multidimensional, a fim de se analisar os vários aspectos que influenciam o risco (social, cultural, individual e contextual) e a imprevisibilidade (perceptiva, objetiva e contextual). Esta tese teve como objetivos: (1) comparar diferentes instrumentos/metodologias de mensuração do risco relacionadas a diferentes formas de envolvimento do participante em situação de tomada de decisão; (2) investigar as relações da percepção de imprevisibilidade do ambiente infantil, da percepção de imprevisibilidade do ambiente atual e da imprevisibilidade objetiva do ambiente atual com as taxas de propensão ao risco; e (3) diferenciar grupos sexuais e grupos experimentais de imprevisibilidade contextual imediata manipulada quanto à variação das taxas de propensão ao risco. Esta pesquisa constou de etapa de construção de instrumento de ativação contextual (a partir de grupos focais; n=35), etapa de pré-teste (n=46) e etapa de coleta propriamente dita (n=211). Tanto no pré-teste quanto na coleta de dados foram usados os mesmos instrumentos: além de questionário sociodemográfico e questionário sobre marcos futuros, usamos instrumentos de imprevisibilidade (EIFI, dados objetivos e ativação contextual por meio de vídeos) e de propensão ao risco (EPRE, jogo driving a car e jogo de cartas). A coleta ocorreu individualmente em setting experimental, com grupos amostrais: 120 participantes eram mulheres (m=21,60 anos; dp=2,19) e 91 eram homens (m=21,46 anos; dp=2,0); 74 participantes compuseram o grupo somático, 78 o grupo reprodutivo e 59 o grupo controle. Os resultados apoiaram a hipótese da relação entre a percepção de imprevisibilidade na infância e a propensão ao risco em etapas mais maduras da vida. Entretanto, esta relação é acompanhada de outros fatores diretamente, tal como a expectativa de vida, e indiretamente, tais como a imprevisibilidade objetiva atual, a percepção de imprevisibilidade atual reprodutiva e o lócus de controle externo. Médias de risco foram diferenciadas por características sexuais, enquanto características contextuais diferenciam a estratégia de resposta ao risco, ou seja, sob ativação contextual o indivíduo recorre mais fortemente à percepção de imprevisibilidade infantil para responder à propensão ao risco do que à expectativa de vida. Além disso, este trabalho contribuiu para a construção e desenvolvimento de instrumentos válidos para o estudo da propensão ao risco voltados para população brasileira / According to the Evolutionary Theory, risk-taking is an evolved behavioral strategy to deal with individual and environmental cues about the availability of resources. Among the environmental cues, unpredictability is one of the most influential on risk-taking. However, there is no consensus whether the actual unpredictability of the current environment or a developmentally acquired perceptual bias of the unpredictability is more important. Furthermore, it is important to consider the study of these relationships in a multidimensional way in order to analyze the various aspects that influence risk (social, cultural, individual and contextual) and unpredictability (perceptive, objective and contextual). This project aimed at: (1) comparing different risk-taking instruments/measures related to different forms of participant involvement in decision-making situations; (2) investigating the relationships between perception of unpredictability in the childhood, perception of unpredictability in current life and objective unpredictability with risk-taking; and (3) differentiating gender and experimental groups with handling contextual unpredictability on risk-taking averages. This research included a phase for the development of an activation of unpredictability instrument (from focus groups, n = 35), stage of pre-test (n=46), and stage of data collection (n=211). Both for the pre-test and for data collection the same instruments were used: a sociodemographic questionnaire, a questionnaire of future milestones, instruments of unpredictability (EIFI, objective data and contextual activation through videos), and instruments of risk-taking (EPRE, game driving a car and cards game). Data collection occurred individually in experimental setting with sample groups: 120 participants were women (mean = 21.60 years, sd= 2.19) and 91 were men (m= 21.46 years, sd=2.0); 74 participants in the somatic group, 78 in the reproductive group and 59 in the control group. The results supported the hypothesized relationship between early childhood perception of unpredictability and risk-taking in mature stages of life. However, this relationship is directly accompanied by other factors, such as life expectancy, and indirectly, such as the objective unpredictability, perception of current reproductive unpredictability and external locus of control. Risk-taking means were differentiated by sex, while contextual characteristics differentiated the strategy of risk response, i.e., under contextual activation individuals use more strongly the childhood perception of unpredictability to respond to risk-taking than to life expectancy. Furthermore, this study has contributed to the construction and development of valid instruments for the study of risk-taking in the Brazilian population

Submitted by JOSIANE SANTOS DE OLIVEIRA (josianeso) on 2018-11-13T12:29:19Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Gabriel Medaglia Voelcker_.pdf: 3571636 bytes, checksum: ea74b544f2ed9803ebd4afdd918f566b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-11-13T12:29:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gabriel Medaglia Voelcker_.pdf: 3571636 bytes, checksum: ea74b544f2ed9803ebd4afdd918f566b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-08-20 / Nenhuma / O presente trabalho aborda a relação estatística entre firmas familiares e tomada de risco. Procura-se contribuir para a crescente literatura em firmas familiares ao realizar uma revisão da literatura das características que as distinguem de firmas não familiares, buscando inovar ao pesquisar um construto pouco trabalhado com este tipo de firma: a tomada de risco. Revisa-se a literatura sobre ambos construtos, utilizando pressuposto teórico e trabalhos empíricos para formular-se a hipótese de pesquisa: firmas familiares são mais avessas à tomada de riscos do que firmas não familiares. Esta hipótese é testada empiricamente através procedimentos econométricos em uma amostra de 1188 observações. Utiliza-se uma amostra com particularidades relevantes, contemplando as firmas listadas na bolsa de valores do Brasil, que compõem um dos maiores mercados mundiais com concentração acionária. Realiza-se dois testes para diferença de médias entre firmas familiares e firmas não familiares, os testes T e Mann-Whitney. Após verificada que a diferença estatística nas variáveis entre os dois tipos de firma existe, busca-se testar a hipótese utilizando um teste de Mínimos Quadrados Ordinários. Para robustez, são utilizados testes de dados em painel com efeitos aleatórios. Em todas as regressões rodadas observa-se um efeito negativo da presença familiar na tomada de risco das firmas. Conclui-se que os resultados corroboram a hipótese de que firmas familiares seriam mais avessas à tomada de riscos que firmas não familiares. / The present work analyses the relationship between family firms and risk-taking. It seeks to contribute to the growing literature on family firms by reviewing the literature on the characteristics that distinguish them from non-family firms, aiming to innovate by approaching a less-used construct for this type of firm: risk-taking. The literature on both constructs is reviewed, using theoretical and empirical works to develop the research hypothesis: family firms are more averse to risk-taking than non-family firms. This hypothesis is tested empirically through econometrics procedures in a sample with 1188 observations. A sample with relevant particularities is used, consisting in the firms listed in the Brazilian stock market, which is one of the biggest markets in the world with shareholder concentration. Two testes are performed to test if the average of the variables behave differently between family and non-family firms: T and Mann-Whitney. After verifying that there is a statistical difference between the two types of firm, it is tested the hypothesis using a Ordinary Least Squares test. For robustness, random effects tests with panel data are performed. In all regressions the presence of family firms negatively affect risk-taking. Thus, it can be concluded that family firms seem to be less prone to risk-taking than non-family firms

Do investment portfolios meet the needs and preferences of investors? Can the portfolio selection process be improved? Traditionally, investor preferences have been identified using risk tolerance questionnaires. These questionnaires have recently attracted a fair deal of criticism. However, there has been little focus as to whether the questionnaires are useful in predicting investors' risk-taking behaviour. In this thesis, an explanatory sequential mixed methods approach was employed to find answers to the primary research question: what factors determine risk-taking behaviour in investment decisions? This thesis looked at the risk-taking behaviour of investors in Canada (N=192) and the risk-taking advice provided by financial advisers in Canada (N=155), collectively risk-taking decisions. The results suggested that return expectations and demographic variables were important predictors of risk-taking decisions, whereas risk tolerance questionnaires were not. Further investigation suggested that investment literacy impacted risk-taking decisions while investment experience impacted both return expectations and risk-taking decisions. In a novel contribution by this thesis, additional perspective was provided by qualitative analysis using semi-structured interviews with investors and advisers. From the results of the qualitative analysis, the author suggests that discovery and self-discovery, a consistent approach and a focus on process versus outcome are key attributes valued by both investors and advisers. The thesis concluded with implications and recommendations for stakeholders, including a greater focus on return expectations, more training in discovery for advisers, simulating investment experience for prospective investors and including investment literacy in school curricula.

A perspectiva evolucionista entende a propensão humana ao risco como estratégia comportamental selecionada para responder a certas dicas ambientais e individuais sobre a disponibilidade de recursos. Dentre as dicas ambientais, a imprevisibilidade é um dos aspectos mais influentes na propensão ao risco. No entanto, não há consenso sobre a importância da imprevisibilidade real do ambiente atual ou de um viés perceptivo sobre a imprevisibilidade, construído ao longo do desenvolvimento. Além disso, é importante considerar o estudo destas relações de forma multidimensional, a fim de se analisar os vários aspectos que influenciam o risco (social, cultural, individual e contextual) e a imprevisibilidade (perceptiva, objetiva e contextual). Esta tese teve como objetivos: (1) comparar diferentes instrumentos/metodologias de mensuração do risco relacionadas a diferentes formas de envolvimento do participante em situação de tomada de decisão; (2) investigar as relações da percepção de imprevisibilidade do ambiente infantil, da percepção de imprevisibilidade do ambiente atual e da imprevisibilidade objetiva do ambiente atual com as taxas de propensão ao risco; e (3) diferenciar grupos sexuais e grupos experimentais de imprevisibilidade contextual imediata manipulada quanto à variação das taxas de propensão ao risco. Esta pesquisa constou de etapa de construção de instrumento de ativação contextual (a partir de grupos focais; n=35), etapa de pré-teste (n=46) e etapa de coleta propriamente dita (n=211). Tanto no pré-teste quanto na coleta de dados foram usados os mesmos instrumentos: além de questionário sociodemográfico e questionário sobre marcos futuros, usamos instrumentos de imprevisibilidade (EIFI, dados objetivos e ativação contextual por meio de vídeos) e de propensão ao risco (EPRE, jogo driving a car e jogo de cartas). A coleta ocorreu individualmente em setting experimental, com grupos amostrais: 120 participantes eram mulheres (m=21,60 anos; dp=2,19) e 91 eram homens (m=21,46 anos; dp=2,0); 74 participantes compuseram o grupo somático, 78 o grupo reprodutivo e 59 o grupo controle. Os resultados apoiaram a hipótese da relação entre a percepção de imprevisibilidade na infância e a propensão ao risco em etapas mais maduras da vida. Entretanto, esta relação é acompanhada de outros fatores diretamente, tal como a expectativa de vida, e indiretamente, tais como a imprevisibilidade objetiva atual, a percepção de imprevisibilidade atual reprodutiva e o lócus de controle externo. Médias de risco foram diferenciadas por características sexuais, enquanto características contextuais diferenciam a estratégia de resposta ao risco, ou seja, sob ativação contextual o indivíduo recorre mais fortemente à percepção de imprevisibilidade infantil para responder à propensão ao risco do que à expectativa de vida. Além disso, este trabalho contribuiu para a construção e desenvolvimento de instrumentos válidos para o estudo da propensão ao risco voltados para população brasileira / According to the Evolutionary Theory, risk-taking is an evolved behavioral strategy to deal with individual and environmental cues about the availability of resources. Among the environmental cues, unpredictability is one of the most influential on risk-taking. However, there is no consensus whether the actual unpredictability of the current environment or a developmentally acquired perceptual bias of the unpredictability is more important. Furthermore, it is important to consider the study of these relationships in a multidimensional way in order to analyze the various aspects that influence risk (social, cultural, individual and contextual) and unpredictability (perceptive, objective and contextual). This project aimed at: (1) comparing different risk-taking instruments/measures related to different forms of participant involvement in decision-making situations; (2) investigating the relationships between perception of unpredictability in the childhood, perception of unpredictability in current life and objective unpredictability with risk-taking; and (3) differentiating gender and experimental groups with handling contextual unpredictability on risk-taking averages. This research included a phase for the development of an activation of unpredictability instrument (from focus groups, n = 35), stage of pre-test (n=46), and stage of data collection (n=211). Both for the pre-test and for data collection the same instruments were used: a sociodemographic questionnaire, a questionnaire of future milestones, instruments of unpredictability (EIFI, objective data and contextual activation through videos), and instruments of risk-taking (EPRE, game driving a car and cards game). Data collection occurred individually in experimental setting with sample groups: 120 participants were women (mean = 21.60 years, sd= 2.19) and 91 were men (m= 21.46 years, sd=2.0); 74 participants in the somatic group, 78 in the reproductive group and 59 in the control group. The results supported the hypothesized relationship between early childhood perception of unpredictability and risk-taking in mature stages of life. However, this relationship is directly accompanied by other factors, such as life expectancy, and indirectly, such as the objective unpredictability, perception of current reproductive unpredictability and external locus of control. Risk-taking means were differentiated by sex, while contextual characteristics differentiated the strategy of risk response, i.e., under contextual activation individuals use more strongly the childhood perception of unpredictability to respond to risk-taking than to life expectancy. Furthermore, this study has contributed to the construction and development of valid instruments for the study of risk-taking in the Brazilian population

Dans les métiers de l’investissement financier, le risque est un outil de travail quotidien et reconnu. Tout individu est ainsi amené à déterminer quels risques valent la peine d’être pris, ou quelle perte vaut la peine d’être risquée. Plus le risque pris est important, plus grands seront les bénéfices – ou pertes – encourus. Ces caractéristiques, le monde de l’investissement financier les partage avec les sports à hauts risques, ou sports extrêmes. Malgré cette similitude, la littérature scientifique issue de chacun des ces domaines adopte une perspective qui lui est propre afin d’expliquer le risque et la prise de risques. Alors que la recherche en finance s’attarde avant tout à la quantification des risques, la littérature sportive s’intéresse davantage à la personnalité des pratiquants de sports extrêmes, répondant donc aux questions : Qui prend des risques ? Pourquoi ? De récentes études ont avancé que les traits de personnalité du narcissisme et de l’alexithymie contribuent significativement à expliquer la tendance à la prise de risques dans le sport. Par le biais de six études successives et complémentaires, ce travail de thèse a pour objectif d’élargir ces résultats par la mise en évidence des relations entre les traits narcissiques et alexithymiques, et la prise de risques financiers / In the world of financial investment, risk is recognised as a daily working tool. Individuals are constantly asked to determine whether risks are worthwhile, in other words whether the potential associated loss is worth risking. The higher the risk, the higher the potential wins or losses. These characteristics are shared between the world of financial investment and high-risk – or extreme – sports. Notwithstanding their similarities, scientific studies conducted within each of these domains have adopted distinct understandings of risk and risk-taking. Whilst research in finance aims to quantify and control risk, the sport literature is rather more interested in the personality of high-risk sport partakers. The latter thus aims to answer questions such as who takes risks and why. Recent studies have highlighted the significant roles played by narcissism and alexithymia, two stable personality traits. Through six successive and complementary studies, the present thesis aims to broaden these results by uncovering the links between both narcissistic and alexithymic personality traits and financial risk-taking.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), once considered a childhood-limited neuropsychiatric condition, is now recognized as often persisting into adolescence and beyond. Recent studies of ADHD and its symptom domains--hyperactivity and inattention--indicate that symptoms can wax and wane over time and follow discrete trajectories characterized by different symptom levels and shapes. However, little is known about symptom trajectories in high-risk groups, such as boys from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Childhood ADHD is associated with cigarette smoking in adolescence, but whether the risk is specific to hyperactivity or inattention or their respective symptom trajectories is not clear. The aims of my dissertation research were to identify trajectories of hyperactivity and inattention symptom scores in a sample of boys from low socioeconomic backgrounds and to assess the associations of those trajectories with cigarette smoking outcomes in late adolescence and young adulthood. In pursuit of those aims, I first conducted a narrative literature review to assess current evidence regarding the persistence of childhood ADHD, hyperactivity and inattention into adolescence, and the associations of persistent ADHD and its symptom domains with the risks of cigarette smoking and nicotine abuse and dependence in adolescence and early adulthood. Data on boys of low socioeconomic status, where available, were summarized. Evidence suggests that nearly 50% of individuals with childhood ADHD or its symptom domains continue to have symptoms in adulthood. Hyperactivity symptom trajectories are likely to decline over time, whereas inattention symptom trajectories are more stable. The sparse literature on the association between ADHD, hyperactivity, and inattention symptom persistence and high symptom score trajectories and smoking outcomes suggests that high inattention symptom score trajectories are associated with earlier onset and higher risk of nicotine abuse or dependence in early adulthood than lower trajectories. Evidence on hyperactivity symptom score trajectories and similar smoking outcomes is inconclusive. Literature on symptom trajectories in low socioeconomic boys is sorely lacking; no study has evaluated the association of symptom score trajectories with smoking outcomes. Second, in a sample of 1,037 boys from low socioeconomic neighborhoods, I derived trajectories of hyperactivity and inattention symptom scores between childhood and mid-adolescence (ages 6-15 years), using teachers’ and mothers’ ratings, separately. I also evaluated risk factors for high symptom score trajectories. Three trajectories were identified for both hyperactivity and inattention symptom scores. Hyperactivity symptom scores generally declined over time (high declining, moderate declining, and low declining), whereas inattention symptom scores remained stable (high stable, moderate stable, and low stable). Most boys had low symptom scores over time (i.e., low declining for hyperactivity or low stable for inattention), but approximately one-fifth to one-third followed high symptom score trajectories (high declining for hyperactivity or high stable for inattention). Mothers were more likely than teachers to rate boys as having higher symptom scores. Boys’ behavioral symptom scores (hyperactivity, inattention, opposition, and anxiety) at age 6 years and lack of family intactness were risk factors for high hyperactivity and inattention symptom score trajectories. Third, in the same sample of boys from low socioeconomic neighborhoods, I assessed the associations of the hyperactivity and inattention symptom score trajectories with frequency of cigarette smoking at ages 16-17 years (late adolescence) and daily and heavy (≥1 pack/day) smoking at ages 23 and 28 years (young adulthood). I further conducted mediational analyses to assess the potential impact of cigarette smoking frequency and use of alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs in late adolescence on smoking outcomes in young adulthood. High vs. low symptom score trajectories of hyperactivity (i.e., high declining vs. low declining) and inattention (i.e., high stable vs. low stable) were associated with nearly doubled odds of high cigarette smoking frequency (≥40 times in the past year) in late adolescence (hyperactivity: OR=1.97 [95% CI=1.30-2.98]; inattention: OR=1.87 [1.27-2.76]). High (vs. low) symptom score trajectory of inattention, but not hyperactivity, was further associated with elevated risk for daily cigarette smoking (OR=2.67 [1.53-4.64]) and heavy cigarette smoking (OR=1.95 [1.10-3.45]) in young adulthood. Part of the associations (about 11-23%) was mediated by high cigarette smoking frequency in late adolescence. The mediation roles of other substances were not statistically significant. Although the socioeconomically disadvantaged boys whose data I analyzed were similar in number of symptom score trajectories and trends (declining for hyperactivity and stable for inattention) to boys in general populations, they were at elevated risk for high scores for both of the symptom domains over time. Childhood behavioral problems as well as lack of family intactness were associated with high symptom score trajectories of both hyperactivity and inattention. High trajectories of both hyperactivity and inattention scores were associated with high risk of cigarette smoking frequency in late adolescence, but inattention appeared to have a longer-term impact on smoking behaviors. Altogether, my research findings suggest that children with high symptom levels of hyperactivity and/or inattention at an early age, especially those with symptoms that persist over time, might benefit from early interventions to manage and reduce their symptoms and their risk of becoming cigarette smokers.

Traffic fatalities accounted for 1.24 million lives lost in 2013 worldwide, and almost 33 thousand of those fatalities were in the U.S. in 2013. The southeastern region of the nation stands out for continuously having higher fatality rates per mile driven than the national average. If one can establish compelling relationships between various factors and fatality rates, then policies and investments can be targeted to increase the safety on the network by focusing on policies that mitigate those factors. In this research effort risk-taking characteristics are explored. These factors have not been as comprehensively reviewed as conventional factors such as vehicle and facility conditions associated with safety. The hypothesis assumes if a person exhibits risk-taking behavior, that risk-taking behavior is not limited to only one aspect of risk, but is likely to occur in multiple facets of the person's life. Some of the risk-taking characteristics explored include credit score, safety belt use, smoking and tobacco use, drug use, mental health, educational attainment, obesity, and overall general health characteristics. All risk-taking characteristics with the exception of mental health were found to have statistically significant correlations with fatality rates alone. However, when a regression model was formed to estimate fatality rates by risk-taking characteristics, only four risk-taking characteristics - credit score, educational attainment, overall poor health, and seat belt use were found to be statistically significant at an integrated level with other demographic characteristics such as unemployment levels and population born is state of residency. By identifying at-risk population segments, education, counseling, enforcement, or other strategies may be deployed to help improve travel safety.

Abstract Young drivers between the ages of 15 and 24 are overrepresented in automobile crash statistics worldwide. Despite the common assumption that young drivers are more at risk of crashing than older drivers due to inexperience, age appears to be the main factor influencing crash risk, even after experience has been taken into account. It is possible that young drivers are involved in a high number of crashes because of their risk-taking tendencies. Accident involvement is not so much influenced by errors and lapses by the driver, but by the willingness to commit driving violations intentionally. However, studies that attempted to measure the risk-taking tendencies of drivers have so far used mainly self-report questionnaires, which are limited in their ability to predict real-world behaviour. This thesis used a new behavioural measure of risk-taking known as the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). In this task, participants engage in computer simulation where a balloon is pumped in order to accumulate money, but when the balloon is pumped too high it explodes, and the money that could have been gained is lost. A group of 50 male drivers were the participants of this study, and these were separated into three age groups: adolescents, aged 16-17, young adults, aged 20-21, and older adults, aged 25 years and over. In addition to the BART, the participants answered a series of questionnaires that focused on risk-related constructs, such as impulsiveness and subjective risk assessment, as well as driving attitudes and intentions. The expectation was that younger drivers would be shown to have greater risk-taking tendencies than older drivers. The results showed that the BART showed no relationship with either driving attitude scores (apart from a small correlation with attitudes towards close following), or any of the self-reported measures of risk. The other self-report risk measures, however, showed many correlations with various aspects of driving attitudes and intentions. Over age groups, the level of impulsiveness was found to decrease, and the attitudes became less in favour of taking physical risks. Adolescents were also found to be more approving of using a cell phone while driving, and of overtaking in risky circumstances. They had greater intentions to commit violations in the future, and were more likely to get a thrill from driving. The failure of the BART to reveal any significant findings may have been because so far it has only been shown to correlate with self-reported real-world behaviour, and not so much with attitudes and risk-related constructs. The other suggestion of this thesis was that the BART does not simulate risk-taking in the truest sense because there are no specific negative consequences for risk taking, only the removal of a possible benefit. The finding of greater risk taking in adolescent drivers was discussed in relation to Risk Homeostasis Theory and Problem Behaviour Theory, with a focus on how age-related factors might influence driver risk taking. As further discussed, these age-related factors might include the effect of incomplete brain development, the motives for driving, and the lifestyle of the individual.