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Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study entails the appraisal of the constitutive models available for the non linear finite element analysis of reinforced concrete, using the DIANA finite element package and following generally accepted guidelines for non linear finite element analyses. The constitutive models considered are plasticity and total strain based (fixed and rotating crack) models. The appraisal consists of the analysis of various experiments performed on reinforced concrete beams that are governed by compressive, shear and tensile dominated failures. The investigation is not limited to the accuracy of the results obtained using these models but also of the consistency of the results obtained with regard to various mesh types and sizes, as well as a study of the individual influence of several material parameters. The intention of the study was to provide the reader with an indication of the performance capacity (accuracy and consistency) of the available constitutive models, where the notion of the use of the results obtained from non linear finite element analyses for design purposes is considered. The results obtained were varied. The models performed reasonably well in the compressive and tension dominated studies, with the importance of accurate material parameters being emphasized especially for the more advanced cementitious materials investigated. The total strain rotating crack model also showed a proclivity of simulating incorrect failure modes as well as exhibiting reluctance towards stress redistribution. All models used for the shear dominated study yielded mostly inaccurate and inconsistent results, but it was found that the four node quadrilateral element with selective reduced integration performed the best. The plasticity model did not capture shear failure well, and convergence was often not attained. The constant shear retention factor of the total strain fixed crack model was found to yield more detailed response curves for the smaller mesh sizes. The results of the tension dominated beams inspired more confidence in the models as quite accurate values were attained, especially by the plasticity model used. The ability of the available models to simulate realistic structural behaviour under various failure modes is very limited, as is evident from the results obtained. The development of a more advanced and robust model is required, which can provide consistently accurate results and failure modes, and even ‘anticipate’ potential failure modes not considered by the user.

Composite materials are usually multi-phase materials, made up from two or more phases, which are combined to provide properties that the individual constituents cannot. This technology represents an economical way to improve product performances avoiding the use of expensive materials. Composite materials can be obtained as films by means of the electrolysis of electroplating solutions in which micrometre- or submicrometre-size particles are suspended: variable amounts of these particles become incorporated in the electrochemically produced solid phase, to which they impart enhanced properties. The main aims of the present work contributing to this thesis are the study of different parameters influencing the electroco-deposition process in order to promote and improve the applicability of such a technology in the high speed electroplating industry. Following a comprehensive review on the electroco-deposition of composite coatings, the phenomena have been analysed moving from a microscopic point of view i. e. the role of the metal ions present in the electrolyte and adsorption on the inert particles and their interactions with the growing metal layer, to a macroscopic point of view i. e. the electrolyte agitation, its influence on particle motion and all the issues related to the presence of particles in an electrolyte during electroplating. In particular the inert particle influence in terms of geometry, dimension and chemical nature (spherical polystyrene particles vs. irregular alumina particles with different dimensions), the metal matrix influence (nickel, copper and zinc), the influence of electrolyte agitation (using a Rotating Cylinder Electrode cell system) and the influence of the coating thickness on particle content in the final coating, using different deposition times, have been examined. The importance of the particle shape has been highlighted showing how incorporating irregular geometries gave higher particle incorporation densities than regular geometries. The influence of the substrate finishing in terms of imperfections has been related to the particle incorporation rate showing how small surface imperfections enhanced the incorporation of particles. Different hydrodynamic regimes have been analysed resulting three different regimes being discerned: laminar, transitional and turbulent. The consequence, in terms of particle incorporation levels, has been found showing how the amount of particles in the coating changed from one regime to another. Different rate-determining steps were related to the hydrodynamics: when the regime is laminar, particles were incorporated as agglomerates and the process was under particle transfer control, whilst in the turbulent zone, the rate determining step was the velocity of reduction of the ions adsorbed on the particle surface.

The majority of this work is concerned with the local-linear convective instability analysis of the incompressible boundary-layer flows over prolate spheroids and oblate spheroids rotating in otherwise still fluid. The laminar boundary layer and the perturbation equations have been formulated by introducing two distinct orthogonal coordinate systems. A cross-sectional eccentricity parameter e is introduced to identify each spheroid within its family. Both systems of equations reduce exactly to those already established for the rotating sphere boundary layer. The effects of viscosity and streamline-curvature are included in each analysis. We predict that for prolate spheroids at low to moderate latitudes, increasing eccentricity has a strong stabilizing effect. However, at high latitudes of ϴ ≥ 60, increasing eccentricity is seen to have a destabilizing effect. For oblate spheroids, increasing eccentricity has a stabilizing effect at all latitudes. Near the pole of both types of spheroids, the critical Reynolds numbers approach that for the rotating disk boundary layer. However, in prolate spheroid case near the pole for very large values of e, the critical Reynolds numbers exceed that for the rotating disk. We show that high curvature near the pole of prolate spheroids is responsible for the increase in critical Reynolds number with increasing eccentricity. For both types of spheroids at moderate eccentricity, we predict that the most amplified modes travel at approximately 76% of the surface speed at all latitudes. This is consistent with the existing studies of boundary-layer flows over the related rotating-disk, -sphere and -cone geometries. However, for large values of eccentricity, the traveling speed of the most amplified modes increases up to approximately 90% of the surface speed of oblate spheroids and up to 100% in the prolate spheroid case.

La simulation d'écoulements dans des cavités cylindriques en rotation présente une difficulté particulière en raison de l'apparition de singularités sur l'axe. Le présent travail propose une méthode collocative pseudospectrale suffisamment efficace et précise pour surmonter cette difficulté et résoudre les équations 3D de Navier-Stokes écrites en coordonnées cylindriques. Cette méthode a été développée dans le cadre des différentes études menées au laboratoire M2P2, utilisant une méthode collocative de type Chebychev dans les directions radiale et axiale et Fourier-Galerkin dans la direction azimutale [thêta]. Pour éviter de prescrire des conditions sur l'axe, une nouvelle approche a été développée. Le domaine de calcul est défini par (r,[thêta],z)∈[-1,1]×[0,2π]×[-1,1] avec un nombre N pair de points de collocation dans la direction radiale. Ainsi, r=0 n'est pas un point de collocation. La distribution de points de type Gauss-Lobatto selon r et z densifie le maillage seulement près des parois ce qui rend l'algorithme bien adapté pour simuler les écoulements dans des cavités cylindriques en rotation. Dans la direction azimutale, le chevauchement des points dû à la discrétisation est évitée par l'introduction d'un décalage égal à π/2K à [thêta]>π dans la transformée de Fourier. La méthode conserve la convergence spectrale. Des comparaisons avec des résultats expérimentaux et numériques de la littérature montrent un très bon accord pour des écoulements induits par la rotation d'un disque dans des cavités cylindriques fermées. / When simulating flows in cylindrical rotating cavities, a difficulty arises from the singularities appearing on the axis. In the same time, the flow field itself does not have any singularity on the axis and this singularity is only apparent. The present work proposes an efficient and accurate collocation pseudospectral method for solving the 3D Navier-Stokes equations using cylindrical coordinates. This method has been developed in the framework of different studies of rotor-stator flows, using Chebyshev collocation in the radial and axial directions and Fourier-Galerkin approximation in the azimuthal periodic direction [thêta]. To avoid the difficulty on the axis without prescribing any pole and parity conditions usually required, a new approach has been developed. The calculation domain is defined as (r,[thêta];,z)∈[-1,1]×[0,2π]×[-1,1] using an even number N of collocation points in the radial direction. Thus, r=0 is not a collocation point. The method keeps the spectral convergence. The grid-point distribution densifies the mesh only near the boundaries that makes the algorithm well-suited to simulate rotating cavity flows where thin layers develop along the walls. In the azimuthal direction, the overlap in the discretization is avoided by introducing a shift equal to π/2K for [thêta]>π in the Fourier transform. Comparisons with reliable experimental and numerical results of the literature show good quantitative agreements for flows driven by rotating discs in cylindrical cavities. Associated to a Spectral Vanishing Viscosity, the method provides very promising LES results of turbulent cavity flows with or without heat transfer.

Die für die Untersuchung des Ermüdungswiderstandes von Elastomerbauteilen verwendeten Formulierungen basieren häufig auf Modellen, die für Anwendungen in der Metalltechnik entwickelt wurden. Die damit verbundenen Eigenschaften wie Isotropie oder Elastizität stehen hingegen im Konflikt mit den Anforderungen, die zu der Wahl eines gefüllten Polymers als Werkstoff geführt haben. Gleichzeitig weisen technische Gummiwerkstoffe ein hochgradig nichtlineares Materialverhalten auf und zeigen vom Polymer und Füllstoffgrad abhängig eine unterschiedlich ausgeprägte belastungsinduzierte Anisotropie. Diese Umstände führen zu dem Bedarf, das Ermüdungsverhalten technischer Gummiwerkstoffe in Abhängigkeit der für Gummi typischen Eigenschaften intensiver zu untersuchen und neue Ansätze für die Auslegung der Lebensdauer von elastomeren Werkstoffen bereitzustellen. Im Rahmen der Arbeit wird eine Auswahl an unterschiedlichen Modellwerkstoffen auf polymerer Basis auf ihre Lebensdauereigenschaften hin analysiert. Den Schwerpunkt bilden hierbei modulierte Belastungsrichtungen, die über eine einfache Scherung mit rotierenden Achsen versuchstechnisch abgebildet werden. Anhand der Versuchsergebnisse werden neue Ansätze zur Vorhersage der Lebensdauer technischer Gummiwerkstoffe formuliert und mit bisherigen Ansätzen verglichen. Neben der Formulierung neuer Berechnungsvorschriften zur Bestimmung des Ermüdungswiderstandes polymerer Werkstoffe werden zudem die einfache Scherung mit rotierenden Achsen sowie das Versuchsprinzip zu deren Umsetzung eingehend untersucht. Dies umfasst auch eine Analyse einer mechanischen Charakterisierung technischer Gummiwerkstoffe anhand einer einfachen Scherung mit rotierenden Achsen.

Recently, due to the unique properties and structures such as large geometric surface area, electrical conductivity and light weight, 3D structured carbon materials have been attracting extensive attention from scientists. Moreover, the materials, which can provide well-defined pathways for reactants to easily access active sites, are extremely useful for energy conversion as well as environmental and catalysis applications. To date, many precursors have been used for fabrication of 3D structured carbon materials including pitch, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and polymer foams. This thesis, as shown in the thesis title, focus on two main aspects: the study of the characteristics of melamine based carbon foam synthesized at different conditions and their applications. In paper I, it was revealed that through a simple, one-step pyrolysis process, flexible carbon foam synthesized from melamine foam (BasotectÒ, BASF) was obtained. Additionally, through a pyrolysis-activation process, activated carbon foam which possesses hydrophilic nature and high surface area was successfully synthesized. The characteristics of carbon foam such as the hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature, electrical conductivity, mechanical properties and surface chemistry were studied. It was shown that carbon foam could be successfully used as an absorbent in environmental applications e.g. removing of spill oil from water (paper I) or as support for heterogeneous catalysts, which in turn was used not only in gas phase reactions (paper I and IV) but also in an aqueous phase reaction (paper II). Importantly, when combined with a SpinChem® rotating bed reactor (SRBR) (paper II), the monolithic carbon foam/SRBR system brought more advantages than using the foam alone. Additionally, the work in paper III showed the potential of carbon foam in an energy conversion application as anode electrode substrate in alkaline water electrolysis. In summary, the versatility of the carbon foam has been proven through abovementioned lab scale studies and due to the simple, scalable and cost effective pyrolysis and activation processes used for the production, it has potential to be used in large-scale applications.

Le principe de la maintenance conditionnelle consiste à évaluer en permanence l’intégrité des machines industrielles, à partir des mesures et de traitements du signal appropriés, afin d’intervenir uniquement au moment le plus opportun. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de cette thèse est de développer une technique de détection, aussi précoce que possible, de l’amorce de dégradation lente d’une structure vibrante, telle que les fissures de fatigue, pour éviter toute défaillance inattendue des machines. Notre approche se base sur les données mesurées à l’aide de deux moyens expérimentaux mis en œuvre au laboratoire. L’étude a démarré avec une poutre encastrée-libre sollicitée en flexion et s’est poursuivie sur un banc d’essais plus représentatif de la problématique industrielle. Dans les deux cas, l'endommagement de la structure a été naturel et progressif, depuis un état réputé sain jusqu’à l’apparition de la fissure. Le comportement dynamique a été suivi à l’aide d’accéléromètres. Ainsi, afin d’identifier des indicateurs sensibles au phénomène d’endommagement, plusieurs pistes ont été envisagées. Nous avons examiné les indicateurs scalaires descriptifs des signaux mesurés, qui sont les moments statistiques, fréquences moyennes et médianes. Ces indicateurs sont utilisés avec succès pour la détection de défaut sur les éléments de machines tournantes, mais ils se sont montrés peu sensibles pour détecter des défaillances structurales. Les fréquences propres identifiées automatiquement à partir des signaux temporels acquis sous chargements opérationnels ont également été étudiées. Ensuite, nous nous sommes orientés vers une approche plus globale pour surveiller les changements spectraux causés par l’apparition d’un défaut sur une structure. En se basant sur les matrices spectrales, fonctions et matrices de transmissibilité, des indicateurs multi-capteurs ont été développés et testés pour les deux cas d’étude. Une Analyse en Composantes Principales a permis d’identifier, entre les indicateurs analysés, ceux qui sont les plus pertinents pour la surveillance de l’intégrité des structures. / The principle of the conditional maintenance consists in continuously evaluating the health state of industrial machines, from measurements and appropriate signal processing, in order to carry out maintenance operations only at the most convenient time. In this context, the objective of this PhD thesis is to implement a technique for detecting as soon as possible slow damage initiation in vibrating structures, such as the fatigue cracks, to avoid the unexpected failure of machines. We have conducted empirical investigations with two experimental setups built in the laboratory. The study started with a cantilever beam subjected to dynamic bending loads, and continued on a test-bench more representative of the industrial problem. In both cases, the structure was naturally and progressively damaged, from a state considered to be healthy, until the crack occurs. Its dynamical behavior was monitored using accelerometers. Therefore, in order to identify damage-sensitive features, many leads were investigated. We have examined the features describing the measured signals waveform, which are statistical moments, mean frequencies and median frequencies. They are successfully used for fault detection on rotating machinery, but they did not demonstrate enough sensitiveness to detect structural damage. The natural frequencies automatically identified from the measured time signals under operational loads have also been studied. Thus, we oriented our work towards a more global approach to monitor the spectral changes caused by the appearance of damage on a structure. Based on the spectral matrices and transmissibility quantities, multi-sensor indicators were developed and tested for the two cases of study. A Principal Component Analysis allowed us to identify, between the surveyed features, the ones most relevant for monitoring the integrity of structures.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le domaine de la simulation numérique appliquée à la propulsion. Le moteur à détonation rotative (RDE) fait partie des candidats susceptibles de remplacer nos actuels moyens de propulsion grâce à l’augmentation du rendement thermodynamique du moteur. Pour conserver l’avantage de la détonation, l’injecteur doit fournir un mélange dont la qualité doit être la meilleure possible tout en limitant les pertes de pression totale. La présente étude porte sur le développement et l’optimisation numérique d’un injecteur adapté au fonctionnement d’un RDE. L’injection d’hydrogène et d’oxygène gazeux en rapport stoechiométrique est considérée pour une utilisation en propulsion fusée. Le premier objectif est de proposer un concept réaliste d’injecteur permettant de maximiser le mélange des ergols. Le second objectif est de réaliser des études du mélange dans la chambre par des simulations LES (Large Eddy Simulation). Le troisième objectif est de simuler la propagation d’une détonation rotative (RD) alimentée par différents injecteurs en régimes prémélangé et séparé. Deux éléments d’injection sont mis en concurrence. Le premier utilise le principe de jets semi-impactants de H2 et de O2. Le deuxième représente une configuration améliorée. Les simulations de RD avec les deux injecteurs donnent des résultats similaires lorsque l’injection est prémélangée. La part du mélange injecté perdu par déflagration est de 30% et la vitesse de propagation de la RD est proche de la vitesse théorique CJ. Pour les injections séparées de H2 et O2, l’injecteur amélioré permet de conserver un bon niveau de mélange dans la chambre, contrairement à l’injecteur à semi-impact qui produit une forte stratification des ergols dans la chambre. En conséquence, la vitesse de propagation de la RD est proche de la vitesse CJ avec l’injecteur amélioré et limitée à 80% de la vitesse CJ avec l’injecteur à semi-impact. / This thesis pertains to the domain of numerical simulation for propulsion applications. The rotating detonation engine (RDE) appears to be a good candidate to replace our current means of propulsion thanks to the increase of the thermodynamic efficiency. To preserve the advantage given by the detonation mode, the injector must provide the best possible mixing of the propellants together with acceptable total pressure losses. This numerical study deals with developing and optimizing an injector adapted to the operation of a RDE. Injection of gaseous H2 and O2 at stoichiometric ratio is considered to be suitable for rocket propulsion application. The first goal is to propose an efficient injector design so that the mixing between the propellants is maximized. The second goal is to perform simulations of the mixing process in the chamber by LES (Large Eddy Simulation) computations. The third goal consists in computing the propagation of a rotating detonation (RD) fed by different injectors in premixed and separate regimes. This study allows the comparison of two injection elements. The first one uses the principle of semi-impinging jets of H2 and O2. The second one represents an improved configuration. RD simulations with both injectors provide similar results when premixed injection is considered. The part of the injected mixture that burns by deflagration is 30% and the detonation velocity remains close the theoretical CJ velocity. In the regime of separate injection of H2 and O2, the improved injector enables to keep a high mixing efficiency in the chamber whereas the semi-impingement injector produces a strong stratification of the propellants in the chamber. As a consequence, the detonation velocity is close to the CJ velocity with the improved injector and limited to 80% of the CJ velocity with the semi-impingement injector.

High voltage testing of the stator winding insulation is one of the most recognized methods used to determine the state of degradation in the insulation. HV tests performed at 0.1 Hz do have potential advantages compared to more traditional 50 Hz tests. This thesis therefore aims to perform and compare tan delta, capacitance and partial discharge measurements on stator windings when using a 0.1 Hz voltage source and a more traditional 50 Hz voltage supply. Several associated test parameters with considerable influence on the test results were varied during the tests. An associated data analysis followed that was focused on the differences and similarities of the analyzed parameters and the results due to the differences in frequency. The results show that there are substantial levels of noise present in the partial discharge measurements when utilizing the VLF voltage source. There are also more numerous partial discharges for VLF measurements than for regular power frequency measurements if the same amount of voltage cycles is considered. The generated patterns show similarities with those generated at 50 Hz, but a larger sample base is probably needed for more thorough conclusions. The tan delta/capacitance part of the test do indicate potential advantages compared to power frequency measurements regarding the sensitivity in the measurements.