Science benefits from substantial cognitive diversity because cognitive diversity promotes scientific progress toward greater accuracy. Without diversity of goals, beliefs, and methods, science would neither generate novel discoveries nor certify representations with its present effectiveness. The revolution in geosciences is a principal case study.The role of cognitive diversity in discovery is explored with attention to computational results. Discovery and certification are inseparable. Moreover, diverse scientific groups agree convergently, and their agreements manifest an explanatory defense akin to the explanatory defense of realism. Scientists accept representations as a matter of their instrumental success in individual scientific research. Because scientists are diverse, this standard of acceptance means that widespread acceptance involves widespread instrumental success. This success is best explained through the accuracy of topics of agreement.The pessimistic induction is addressed; it fails to undermine the explanatory defense because past scientific successes don't resemble present ones in their degree of instrumental success; to make this point, instrumental success of representations of caloric and of oxygen are compared.Cognitive diversity challenges the methodological uniformity of scientific practice. Science lacks uniform methods and aims, and it ought to. It is argued that there is no sound basis for thinking that science aims. Moreover, the growth of science itself is not the growth of knowledge. Scientific communities rather than individual scientists are the main certifiers of scientific results. Hence, since knowledge requires a certifying belief formation process but the process relevant to science is not realized individually, science does not progress toward knowledge. The epistemology of science is socialized, but remains broadly realist because, even without a method of inquiry, science develops accurate representations of unobservable nature.

The lack of access to effective diagnosis and treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) remains a persistent global challenge. Human rights arguments for access to treatment mostly focus on the right to health. However, a key challenge in access to effective diagnosis and treatment is the glaring absence of scientific research in neglected diseases such as TB. This thesis sets out to elaborate the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and explore its potential to increase scientific research in DR-TB and consequently enhance access to effective diagnosis and treatment in South Africa. This research project was conducted using three interrelated sub-studies; a legal analysis sub-study which examines the current conceptualisation of the REBSP in international law; a policy analysis sub-study which interrogates South Africa’s legal and policy efforts towards the realisation of the REBSP and access to diagnosis and treatment for DR-TB; and a qualitative sub-study which explores the South African context regarding research and development (R&D) in general, and in DR-TB in particular. The qualitative sub-study included 17 stakeholders who are active in TB R&D, advocacy and policy work, from human rights and research institutions, government agencies, civil society organisations, and donor agencies. This thesis finds that the REBSP essentially ensures two things, namely the production of science and access to the benefits of scientific progress. However, most countries including South Africa have systems, policies and resources aimed at advancing the production of science but lack similar systems, policies and resources to purposely ensure the enjoyment of the benefits from scientific progress. Internationally, there is no clear guidance on the interpretation of the REBSP, making it difficult for states to domesticate it in their national policies and framework laws. A General Comment by a UN human rights monitoring body is therefore urgently needed to secure global consensus on the interpretation of the REBSP. In the meanwhile, South Africa can still draw inspiration for the REBSP and together with the right to health, use it to advance access to DR-TB diagnosis and treatment alongside many other interventions. To enable better access to effective diagnosis and treatment of DR-TB, this thesis recommends that South Africa i) develops systems that would make scientific progress and results accessible, and affordable; ii) removes system and regulatory barriers that hinder the conduct of research or that delay registration of new drugs; iii) monitors and regulates the conduct of third parties and prevent them from exploiting communities; iv) encourages pharmaceutical companies to provide free access to successful treatment and tools in communities where trials are conducted; and v) mobilises financial and technical resources and allocates them to DR-TB researchfrom drug discovery through to implementation science.

Qualquer disciplina científica que se entenda como tal deve, constantemente, avaliar criticamente o mérito interno de suas abordagens, em termos de sua progressividade e da geração de conhecimento relevante. É exatamente a este tipo de reflexão que o presente trabalho doutoral se propõe, tendo como objeto a teoria das relações internacionais. Trata-se, efetivamente, de um exercício situado na fronteira entre a epistemologia, ou teoria do conhecimento, e a apreciação teórica das dinâmicas da política internacional. Precisamente, propõe-se uma análise do fôlego teórico-científico da vertente estrutural do realismo político, da forma desenvolvida seminalmente por Kenneth Waltz, diante de emendas teóricas incorporadas pelo realismo ofensivo de John Mearsheimer. Como uma tal discussão não pode prescindir de uma referência metateórica, optou-se pela aplicação da Metodologia dos Programas de Pesquisa Científicos desenvolvida por Imre Lakatos. Espera-se com esta investigação trazer três contribuições fundamentais ao estudo teórico das relações internacionais: (i) o delineamento da proposta epistemológica de Lakatos e de seus critérios de aplicação, bem como a discussão de sua adequação às ciências sociais, em geral, e à teoria das relações internacionais, em particular; (ii) sistematizar o realismo estrutural na forma de um programa de pesquisa científico, identificando seu núcleo duro, seu cinturão de proteção de hipóteses auxiliares e suas heurísticas negativa e positiva; e (iii) demonstrar que o realismo ofensivo mearsheimeriano representa uma mudança teórica intraprogramática progressiva no interior do Programa de Pesquisa Científico do Realismo Estrutural. / Any scientific field of research must constantly and critically evaluate its internal developments, in terms of progressiveness and the construction of significant knowledge. That is precisely what the present dissertation is set out to do, regarding the theory of international relations. It is indeed an exercise located at the frontier between epistemology and the theoretical understanding of the international political dynamics. Specifically, the theoretical-scientific depth of structural realism, as seminally developed by Kenneth Waltz, will be analyzed in face of recent theoretical amendments proposed by John Mearsheimer\'s offensive realism. Since such an approach cannot be conducted in the absence of a metatheoretical referential, Imre Lakatos\' Methodology of Scientific Research Programs (MSRP) will be applied. Three main contributions are expected to follow from our study: (i) a clearer understanding of Lakatos\' epistemology proposal and its criteria, as well as a discussion of the adequacy of the MSRP for the social sciences, in general, and the theory of international relations, in particular; (ii) a more systematic approach to structural realism as a scientific research program, identifying its hard core, its protective belt of auxiliary hypothesis and its negative and positive heuristics; and (iii) the appreciation of offensive realism as a progressive theoryshift for the Structural Realist Research Program.

A partir da análise do modelo de desenvolvimento da ciência proposto por Kuhn em The structure of scientific revolutions (1962) é possível considerar a ciência enquanto prática realizada no interior comunidades científicas. Ainda que tratando de dois tipos de progresso científico: aquele que ocorre por meio da atividade paradigmática e o que acontece por meio das revoluções científicas, Kuhn permanece como modelo de progresso científico centrado especialmente no aspecto cognitivo interno da atividade científica. Porém, ao listar os valores como um dos elementos do paradigma, Kuhn trouxe para a filosofia da ciência a possibilidade do tratamento também dos fatores externos, que estão relacionados ao contexto social no qual a ciência está inserida. Levando adiante essa proposta de interação entre a ciência e os valores, Lacey vincula o conceito de paradigma a sua concepção de estratégia de pesquisa. Orientando-nos pela guinada valorativa empreendida por Lacey, formulamos três características que compõem o progresso valorativo da ciência, que são a consideração da prática científica, a identificação da interação da ciência com os valores e o reconhecimento da estrutura entre meios e fins que subjaz à relação da escolha das estratégias de pesquisa (M1) com os demais momentos logicamente distintos da prática da ciência, incluindo a relação entre a ciência e a tecnologia que é realizada no momento da aplicação científica (M5). Nossa consideração está baseada em grande medida no modelo da interação entre a ciência e os valores, que permite elucidar além da distinção entre os valores pessoais e os sociais, e da distinção entre valores cognitivos e não cognitivos, a articulação dos valores através do discurso, como forma de explicitá-los, permitindo a sua crítica por perspectivas de valor divergentes. Além disso, para exemplificar o enraizamento dos valores nos contextos sociais e institucionais da ciência, analisamos três estudos de casos, da inovação no Brasil, da proibição de uso de animais para o teste de cosméticos no Estado de São Paulo e da aplicação do aconselhamento genético no Centro de Estudos do Genoma Humano e Células-Tronco, dos quais extraímos que a interação entre a ciência, a tecnologia e a sociedade requer o reconhecimento de que os valores orientam as práticas científicas e tecnológicas, bem como a possibilidade de que demandas sociais de legitimidade alterem a relação entre meio (ciência e tecnologia) e finalidades (controle da natureza e inovação) a serem atingidas. / Beginning from the analysis of Thomas Kuhns model of development of science, proposed in The structure of scientific revolutions (1962), it is possible to consider science as a practice held within scientific communities. Although dealing with two different types of scientific progress, i.e., progress by means of paradigmatic activity, and progress by means of scientific revolutions, Kuhn remains within a model of scientific progress centered mainly in the internal cognitive aspect of scientific practice. But, enrolling values among the elements of paradigm, Kuhn brings to the philosophy of science the possibility of treating also the external factors which are related to the social context in which science is inserted. Bringing ahead this proposal of interaction between science and values, Lacey links the concept of paradigms to his conception of research strategy. Guided by Laceys evaluative turn, we formulate three features that compose the evaluative progress of science. There features are to take into account the scientific practice, to identify the interaction between science and values, and to recognize the structure of means and ends that underlies the relation between the choice of the research strategy (M1) and the other logically distinct moments of scientific practice, specially the relation between science and technology which occurs in the stage of scientific application. Our consideration is based mainly on the model of the interaction between science and values. This allows the clarification not only of the distinctions between personal values and social values, and the distinction between cognitive values and non-cognitive values, but also the articulation of values through discourse as a mean of making them explicit, admitting their criticism from divergent evaluative perspectives. Furthermore to exemplify the rooting of values in the social and institutional contexts of science, we analyze three study-cases: that of innovation in Brazil, that of prohibiting the use of animals for the test of cosmetics in the State of São Paulo, and that of genetic advice in the Human Genome and Stem Cells Research Center. From these study-cases we extract that the interaction between science, technology and society requires the recognition that values guide scientific and technological practices, as well as the possibility that social demands of legitimacy change the relation between the means (science and technology) and the ends (control of nature and innovation) to be achieved.

Philosophers of science have long realized that it is not possible to decide which scientific theory is true just by relying on their empirical adequacy. That theories should possess other virtues in order to be accepted by the scientific community is well understood. Nevertheless, empirical adequacy remained as having a privileged value among these virtues. In this thesis I argue that scientific theories are accepted or rejected on the bases of an evaluation of their degree of coherence. In such a coherentist understanding, empirical adequacy still plays some role. However, this is an egalitarian approach where observational reports have no special status. By means of case studies form history of science I provided reasons to think that this coherentist approach is better suited to understanding scientific change as a rational process.

A partir da análise do modelo de desenvolvimento da ciência proposto por Kuhn em The structure of scientific revolutions (1962) é possível considerar a ciência enquanto prática realizada no interior comunidades científicas. Ainda que tratando de dois tipos de progresso científico: aquele que ocorre por meio da atividade paradigmática e o que acontece por meio das revoluções científicas, Kuhn permanece como modelo de progresso científico centrado especialmente no aspecto cognitivo interno da atividade científica. Porém, ao listar os valores como um dos elementos do paradigma, Kuhn trouxe para a filosofia da ciência a possibilidade do tratamento também dos fatores externos, que estão relacionados ao contexto social no qual a ciência está inserida. Levando adiante essa proposta de interação entre a ciência e os valores, Lacey vincula o conceito de paradigma a sua concepção de estratégia de pesquisa. Orientando-nos pela guinada valorativa empreendida por Lacey, formulamos três características que compõem o progresso valorativo da ciência, que são a consideração da prática científica, a identificação da interação da ciência com os valores e o reconhecimento da estrutura entre meios e fins que subjaz à relação da escolha das estratégias de pesquisa (M1) com os demais momentos logicamente distintos da prática da ciência, incluindo a relação entre a ciência e a tecnologia que é realizada no momento da aplicação científica (M5). Nossa consideração está baseada em grande medida no modelo da interação entre a ciência e os valores, que permite elucidar além da distinção entre os valores pessoais e os sociais, e da distinção entre valores cognitivos e não cognitivos, a articulação dos valores através do discurso, como forma de explicitá-los, permitindo a sua crítica por perspectivas de valor divergentes. Além disso, para exemplificar o enraizamento dos valores nos contextos sociais e institucionais da ciência, analisamos três estudos de casos, da inovação no Brasil, da proibição de uso de animais para o teste de cosméticos no Estado de São Paulo e da aplicação do aconselhamento genético no Centro de Estudos do Genoma Humano e Células-Tronco, dos quais extraímos que a interação entre a ciência, a tecnologia e a sociedade requer o reconhecimento de que os valores orientam as práticas científicas e tecnológicas, bem como a possibilidade de que demandas sociais de legitimidade alterem a relação entre meio (ciência e tecnologia) e finalidades (controle da natureza e inovação) a serem atingidas. / Beginning from the analysis of Thomas Kuhns model of development of science, proposed in The structure of scientific revolutions (1962), it is possible to consider science as a practice held within scientific communities. Although dealing with two different types of scientific progress, i.e., progress by means of paradigmatic activity, and progress by means of scientific revolutions, Kuhn remains within a model of scientific progress centered mainly in the internal cognitive aspect of scientific practice. But, enrolling values among the elements of paradigm, Kuhn brings to the philosophy of science the possibility of treating also the external factors which are related to the social context in which science is inserted. Bringing ahead this proposal of interaction between science and values, Lacey links the concept of paradigms to his conception of research strategy. Guided by Laceys evaluative turn, we formulate three features that compose the evaluative progress of science. There features are to take into account the scientific practice, to identify the interaction between science and values, and to recognize the structure of means and ends that underlies the relation between the choice of the research strategy (M1) and the other logically distinct moments of scientific practice, specially the relation between science and technology which occurs in the stage of scientific application. Our consideration is based mainly on the model of the interaction between science and values. This allows the clarification not only of the distinctions between personal values and social values, and the distinction between cognitive values and non-cognitive values, but also the articulation of values through discourse as a mean of making them explicit, admitting their criticism from divergent evaluative perspectives. Furthermore to exemplify the rooting of values in the social and institutional contexts of science, we analyze three study-cases: that of innovation in Brazil, that of prohibiting the use of animals for the test of cosmetics in the State of São Paulo, and that of genetic advice in the Human Genome and Stem Cells Research Center. From these study-cases we extract that the interaction between science, technology and society requires the recognition that values guide scientific and technological practices, as well as the possibility that social demands of legitimacy change the relation between the means (science and technology) and the ends (control of nature and innovation) to be achieved.

Qualquer disciplina científica que se entenda como tal deve, constantemente, avaliar criticamente o mérito interno de suas abordagens, em termos de sua progressividade e da geração de conhecimento relevante. É exatamente a este tipo de reflexão que o presente trabalho doutoral se propõe, tendo como objeto a teoria das relações internacionais. Trata-se, efetivamente, de um exercício situado na fronteira entre a epistemologia, ou teoria do conhecimento, e a apreciação teórica das dinâmicas da política internacional. Precisamente, propõe-se uma análise do fôlego teórico-científico da vertente estrutural do realismo político, da forma desenvolvida seminalmente por Kenneth Waltz, diante de emendas teóricas incorporadas pelo realismo ofensivo de John Mearsheimer. Como uma tal discussão não pode prescindir de uma referência metateórica, optou-se pela aplicação da Metodologia dos Programas de Pesquisa Científicos desenvolvida por Imre Lakatos. Espera-se com esta investigação trazer três contribuições fundamentais ao estudo teórico das relações internacionais: (i) o delineamento da proposta epistemológica de Lakatos e de seus critérios de aplicação, bem como a discussão de sua adequação às ciências sociais, em geral, e à teoria das relações internacionais, em particular; (ii) sistematizar o realismo estrutural na forma de um programa de pesquisa científico, identificando seu núcleo duro, seu cinturão de proteção de hipóteses auxiliares e suas heurísticas negativa e positiva; e (iii) demonstrar que o realismo ofensivo mearsheimeriano representa uma mudança teórica intraprogramática progressiva no interior do Programa de Pesquisa Científico do Realismo Estrutural. / Any scientific field of research must constantly and critically evaluate its internal developments, in terms of progressiveness and the construction of significant knowledge. That is precisely what the present dissertation is set out to do, regarding the theory of international relations. It is indeed an exercise located at the frontier between epistemology and the theoretical understanding of the international political dynamics. Specifically, the theoretical-scientific depth of structural realism, as seminally developed by Kenneth Waltz, will be analyzed in face of recent theoretical amendments proposed by John Mearsheimer\'s offensive realism. Since such an approach cannot be conducted in the absence of a metatheoretical referential, Imre Lakatos\' Methodology of Scientific Research Programs (MSRP) will be applied. Three main contributions are expected to follow from our study: (i) a clearer understanding of Lakatos\' epistemology proposal and its criteria, as well as a discussion of the adequacy of the MSRP for the social sciences, in general, and the theory of international relations, in particular; (ii) a more systematic approach to structural realism as a scientific research program, identifying its hard core, its protective belt of auxiliary hypothesis and its negative and positive heuristics; and (iii) the appreciation of offensive realism as a progressive theoryshift for the Structural Realist Research Program.

yes / Thomas S. Kuhn is famous both for his work on the Copernican Revolution and his ‘paradigm’ view of scientific revolutions. But Kuhn later abandoned the notion of paradigm (and related notions) in favour of a more ‘evolutionary’ view of the history of science. Kuhn’s position therefore moved closer to ‘continuity’ models of scientific progress, for instance ‘chain-of-reasoning’ models, originally championed by D. Shapere. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the debate around Kuhn’s new ‘developmental’ view and to evaluate these competing models with reference to some major innovations in the history of cosmology, from Copernicanism to modern cosmology. This evaluation is made possible through some unexpected overlap between Kuhn’s earlier discontinuity model and various versions of the later continuity models. It is the thesis of this paper that the ‘chain-of-reasoning’ model accounts better for the cosmological evidence than both Kuhn’s early paradigm model and his later developmental view of the history of science.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T17:27:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Isaque Trevisam Braga.pdf: 551367 bytes, checksum: 40ce42fdff46c96a722e727db82985d2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-12-11 / At the present juncture of reality, where the unbridled path of the evolution and technological progress is echoed in the eagerness of human expectations regarding the search for unlimited access to the resources of nature and for a utopia of a scientific knowledge that arranges for the continual maintenance of its purposes, directing humanity to the danger of its own extinction, this research aims to promote, within its limitations, the diffusion of critical reflection on the technical and scientific development, the proper regulation of the means of production and the attempt for a practice of sustainable consumption, buoyed by the foundations of a deep ecology. Appropriating, respectively, of the inquiries and postures defended by Hans Jonas, Michel Serres and Fritjof Capra, methodologically it is proposed to approach the authors to systematize common keywords which turns to the divulgation of conceptual positions to be problematized and possible postures to be adopted under the observed circumstances. Therefore, it is concluded that, from an ecological perception of reality, it s imperative that mankind be elected as responsible for their own future and instructs itself by a acquaintanceship symbiosis with the environment, in connection with all strands of the web of life / No momento em que o percurso desenfreado da evolução e do progresso tecnológico encontra eco nas expectativas humanas em relação à busca pelo acesso ilimitado aos recursos da natureza e pela utopia de um saber científico que agencie a manutenção contínua de seus propósitos, direcionando a humanidade ao perigo de sua própria extinção, a presente pesquisa objetiva promover, dentro de suas limitações, a difusão de uma reflexão crítica em torno do desenvolvimento técnico-científico, da devida regulação dos seus meios de produção e da tentativa de uma prática de consumo sustentável, balizada pelos fundamentos de uma ecologia profunda. Apropriando-se das indagações e posturas defendidas por Hans Jonas, Michel Serres e Fritjof Capra, metodologicamente propõe-se a aproximação dos autores a fim de sistematizar conceitos em comum voltados para a divulgação de posições conceituais a serem problematizadas e possíveis posturas a serem adotadas ante as circunstâncias observadas. Considera-se que, a partir de uma percepção ecológica da realidade, faz-se imperativo que a humanidade se eleja como responsável pelo seu próprio futuro e se instrua num convívio simbiótico com o meio ambiente, em conexão com todos os fios da teia da vida