Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The escalation in the growing upsurge of informal settlements seems to create a few problems for local municipalities in the Cape Metropolitan Area (CMA). At the beginning of 1998 the capacity of the City Of Cape Town Municipality (CCT) was fully tested with the coming into being of a new informal settlement in the Tafelsig, Mitchell's Plain area. During the Easter weekend of that year homeless people started to invade a piece of vacant land, which belongs to this municipality, illegally. With the establishing of Freedom Park many of the homeless felt that the time was ripe for this municipality to address their problems and grievances. However up till now this has not materialised, as this municipality is refusing to make any service delivery and infrastructure available to them. Despite this, the people are still reluctant to submit to the demand of the municipality to evacuate the piece of land. Hitherto many had asked questions about the settlement and its people. With the asking of these questions, people had shown their ignorance about the Freedom Park issue. This ignorance led people to make certain assumptions, which are clearly far from the truth. The aim of this study is thus to present more clear-cut answers to the most common questions people had asked and still are asking. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die groeiende toename in informele nedersettings in die Kaapse Metropolitaanse Gebied blyk toenemend om 'n probleem vir plaaslike owerhede te wees. Aan die begin van 1998 was die kapasiteit van die Kaapse Munisipaliteit om sulke situasies te hanteer ten volle getoets. In hierdie tydperk het haweloses van die Tafelsig, Mitchell's Plain, area die reg in eie hande geneem deur 'n stuk grond wat aan hierdie munisipaliteit behoort onwettig te beset. Met die vestiging van Freedom Park het baie van hierdie mense gedink dat hulle frustrasies en probleme deur hierdie munisipaliteit aangehoor sou word. Dit het egter tot op hede nog nie 'n werklikheid geword, deurdat dié munisipaliteit huiwer om tydelike en korttermyn infrastrukture aan hierdie mense beskikbaar te stel. Ten spyte hiervan is die inwoners van hierdie nedersetting egter vasbeslote om nie in te gee aan die versoek van die munisipaliteit om die grond te ontruim nie. Tot op hede was daar baie vra gevra rondom hierdie nedersetting en sy inwoners. Met hierdie vrae het sulkes hulonkunde om die Freedom Park kwessie suksesvol te hanteer en te verstaan bewys. Dit is dus in hierdie lig dat hierdie studie onderneem was. Die sentrale doelwit van dié studie is dus om meer duidelikheid te werp op vrae soos: Wie is hierdie mense? Waarvandaan kom hulle? Hoekom het hulle tot so 'n drastiese stap oorgegaan?

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Payment systems can be defined as a funds transfer system processing third party payments, supervised by a central bank or appropriate Regulatory Authority. (S.W.I.F.T., 1997). Therefore the importance of a well managed system, through regulatory methods, as well as self-regulation by the industry, cannot be over emphasized. According to Humphrey, (1996: 923), the composition of non-cash transactions consists of the following five payment instruments. The paper-based transactions are composed of cheques and paperbased giros payments. The electronic transactions consist of electronic giro, debit card (POS), and credit card payments. According to Vives, (1998: 168) there are normally two goals when a country wants to change its payment system, either it wants to increase efficiency, or it wants to reduce risk. If there is a conflict between risk and efficiency, the less risky solution must prevail. Credit risk and systemic risk poses the greatest challenges to payment systems. Credit risk exists when credit was granted to a participating member, which cannot fulfil its debt at the stage of payment need to be made. Systematic risks encompass situations in which the credit or liquidity problems for one or more market participants create substantial credit or liquidity problems for participants elsewhere in the financial system. (Emmons, 1997: 11). In order to create international standards in addressing the risk issues involved the Bank of International Settlements was established. The Bank's predominant tasks are to promote the co-operation of central banks and to provide additional facilities for international financial operations, and to create and maintain stability of international monetary and financial systems. The Bank of International Settlements published the Lamfallussy report. From the findings of this report a series of policy recommendations regarding netting schemes. The Basle Committee was established by the Central Bank Governors of the Group of Ten countries as a result of serious failures and disturbances in the international currency and banking markets, with the main objective to improve the collaboration between bank supervisors world wide. The objective is met by using three different methods, namely. Exchange information on national supervisory arrangements, improving the effectiveness of techniques for supervising, and the setting of minimum supervisory guidelines and recommendations and recommended statements of best practices, expecting authorities to take steps to implement in their respective countries. To enable secure international payments the Society for Worldwide Inter-bank Financial Telecommunications (SWIFT) was created, with the mission to provide technology-based communication services across all financial markets through member banks and their market infrastructures so that they can meet their own and their end-customers' needs. There is a growing awareness among central banks of the need to ensure the integrity, the security and the stability of their country's payment system. The central bank's main function was to regulate the country's currency circulation, to facilitate' payment transactions and to pursue a credit and monetary policy serving the interest of the country as a whole. Because of their importance for the smooth operation of commerce of financial markets, central banks often own and/or operate large value payment networks themselves rather than leave this function solely to commercial banks. (Sato et a/., 1995: 37). Commercial banks, or their agents, perform the vast majority of the clearing and processing of payment in developed countries, as well as providing the payment facilities to clients. The United States central bank is the main exception to this division of responsibility as it provides settlement service as well as check processing and over one-half of all Automatic Clearing Houses and wire processing services. (Sato et a/., 1995: 32). The re-entry of South Africa in the global trade in the early 1990s created new opportunities and challenges for the country. With the existing established payment system, South Africa provides a gateway to the Southern African countries. There are a number of fundamental changes in the financial markets, which have an impact on payment and settlement systems. The first important factor is the high speed of technological progress. Secondly, the fundamental change in financial markets concerns the internationalisation of financial flows. From a central bank point of view, these developments, although in principle to be welcomed because of their contribution to the effect of allocation of financial resources, require close attention, as the interrelationships between worldwide financial markets could also give rise to a propagation of risks. (Koning, 1998: 19). South Africa's payments system, as a well-functioning system, compares favourably with the best in the world; this is an essential requirement for participation in the international finance and trading. The challenge the South African banks face is the social responsibility to uplift the community on the one side, and compliance with the international rules and legislation on the other. In accordance to the minimum requirements set by the Lamfallussy report. The Reserve Bank of South Africa enforced strong policies via the Banking Council of South Africa, as well as the different committees and associations dedicated to certain payment systems. The South African Reserve Bank intent to provide an Electronic Communications and Transactions Bill in order to promote and regulate electronic communication and transactions. The Banking Council set certain criteria that will be implemented from the first of January 2002 on the item limits applicable to the certain electronic methods of payment. Councils and associations in the banking sector are established, self-regulatory as well as government controlled, to enforce rules and regulations to reduce the risk involved in the industry and comply with international requirements. A strong legal framework and the enforcement of certain risk prevention methods, for instance the enforcement of item limits and the change in the law on the crossing of cheques prove the commitment to participate internationally. The strong movement to same day settlement, (especially in high value payments via the SAMOS system), show that the payment industry in South Africa is on an ongoing process of implementing new procedures to comply with the international standards. Electronic money can be defined as stored value or prepaid products in which a record of funds or value available to the consumer is stored on a device in the consumer's possession. (Bank of International Settlements, 2001: 1). Consumers benefit from the ability to use payment methods that are inexpensive, convenient, and accessible. (Bank of International Settlements, 1997: 6). The participation in the payment processes by non-financial entities, coupled with the design and widespread use of unknown digital form of monetary value poses serious threats to the central bank's ability to control monetary policy and safeguard financial stability. Card based e-money schemes have been combined with functionality's such as access control, holder identification or local transportation ticketing. Network-based e-money schemes are operational or under trail in a limited number of countries. The existing payment system legislation applies to networkbased schemes. The South African Reserve Bank needs to constantly monitor and analyse the existing and new different methods of payment systems in order to create a low risk, stable, safe and a trade supportive environment for the improvement of its own economy, as well as for the Southern African region. Specific attention needs to be given to the high-value payment systems in order to reduce systemic risk. The prevalent factor is the real time settlement of the SAM OS (South African Multi Option Settlement) system. Finally, regulators need to coordinate actions, through the international and local platforms provides, to implant financial discipline, manage risk and support cross-border and regional trade. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Betaalstelsels kan gedefinieer word as 'n opdragte- of fondsoorplasingstelsel vir die maak van betalings aan 'n derde party, wat gereguleer word deur 'n sentrale bank of regering. (SWIFT, 1997). Die belangrikheid van 'n goedgereguleerde stelsel, deur middel van wetgewing, sowel as selfregulering deur die industrie, kan nie oorbeklemtoon word nie. Humphry (1996: 923) beskryf die samestelling van nie-kontant betaalstelsels as die volgende vyf instrumente. Die papier gebaseerde transaksie wat uit tjeks, papier-gebaseerde "giro' bestaan. Elektroniese transaksies bestaan uit die elektroniese "giro", debiet- en kredietkaarte. Volgens Vives (1998: 168) is daar normaalweg twee doelwitte wanneer verandering aan 'n betaalstelsels aangebring word, naamlik die verbetering in doeltreffendheid, of die vermindering van risiko, waar die laer risiko gewoonlik die voorkeur sal kry. Kredietrisiko en sistemiese risiko hou die grootste uitdagings vir betaalstelsels in. Kredietrisiko ontstaan waar krediet aan 'n deelnemende lid van 'n stelsel verleen word en die ander party nie kan presteer op die tydstip van betaling nie. Sistemiese risko's sluit situasies in waar krediet of likiditeit probleme vir een of meerdere deelnemers vir ander deelnemers groot krediet of likiditeits probleme skep in die finansiële stelsel. (Emmons, 1997: 11). Om risiko's internasionaal aan te spreek is die Bank of International Settlements gestig. Die organisasie het ten doeI om koördinasie tussen die sentrale banke te bevorder en stabiliteit te skep in die internasionale monetêre en finansiële markte. Die Bank of International Settlements het die Lamfallussy verslag opgestel waarin verskeie beleid aanbevelings aangaande verrekeningstelsels gemaak word. Die Basle Committee is gestig deur die hoofde van die Groep van 10 lande se sentrale banke weens die mislukking en ontwrigting van geldeenhede en finansiële markte wêreldwyd, met die doelstelling om samewerking tussen banke wêreldwyd te bevorder. Dit word bereik deur drie metodes naamlik, uitruil van inligting wêreldwyd na adviseurs, verbetering in die verskaffing van advies en die daarstel van riglyne en aanbevelings aangaande die beste praktyke, wat regerings in hul eie lande kan aanwend. Vir die daarstelling van 'n gestandaardiseerde, veilige intenasionale opdragte en betalings stelsel is die Society for Worldwide Inter-bank Financial Telecommunications (SWIFT) gestig, met die missie om 'n tegnologie gebasseerde opdrag en kommunikasie stelsel daar te stel wat alle markte deur middel van lede lande en hul infrastrukture kliënte kan bedien. Daar is 'n toenemende bewuswording onder sentrale banke om die integriteit en die sekuriteit van hul eie betaalstelsel te verseker. Die hoof funksie van die sentrale bank is die regulering van die land se geldeenheid, om betalings moontlik te maak en die daarstel van krediet- en monetêre beleid vir die steun van die land se belange as geheel. Weens die belangrikheid in die suksesvolle werking van die kommersiële markte, besit sentrale banke groot gedeeltes van die verrekeningstelsels eerder om dit aan kommersiële banke oor te laat. (Sato et aI., 1995: 37). Elke sentrale bank verskaf verskillende verrekeningsdienste afhangende van faktore soos die verskillende regsfaktore, sosiale faktore, politieke faktore, internasionale- en mededingende faktore. Kommersiële banke, of hul agente, is verantwoordelik vir die oorgrootte van verwerkingsaksies in ontwikkelende lande, asook die verskaffing van die betalingsmiddele. Die Verenigde State se sentrale bank is die hoof uitsondering wat self die verrekeningsdienste lewer, die prosessering van tjeks doen, die verrekeningshuise besit en verwerking dienste lewer. (Sato et al., 1995: 32). Suid-Afrika se hertoetrede tot die internasionale finansiële wêreld in die vroeë jare negentig het geleenthede en uitdagings meegebring. Met 'n bestaande gevestigde betaalstelsel word Suid-Afrika beskou as die deur na die Suider- Afrikaanse lande. Verskeie fundamentele veranderinge in die finansiële markte het 'n impak op die betaal- en verrekeningstelsels. Eerstens die spoed van tegnologiese vooruitgang; tweedens die verandering van die finansiële markte in terme van kapitaalvloei. Uit die oogpunt van 'n sentrale bank, verg die toekenning van finansiële hulpbronne, intense aandag, omdat die interverwantskappe van finansiële markte wêreldwyd risiko's verhoog. (Koning, 1998: 19). Suid-Afrika beskik oor 'n goed funksionerende betaalstelsel wat vergelyk kan word met die bestes ter wêreld en is van uiterste belang vir die internasionale deelname in finansiering en handel. Suid-Afrikaanse banke staan voor die uitdaging om aan sy sosiale verantwoordelikhede te voldoen om die gemeeskap op te bou aan die een kant en die vereistes om aan internasionale standaarde te voldoen, soos deur die Lamfallussy veslag voorgeskryf, aan die ander kant. Die Reserwe bank van Suid-Afrika dwing beleid af via die Banking Council of South Africa, asook verskeie kommisies en verenigings wat fokus op die verskeie betaalstelsels. Die Reserwebank van Suid-Afrika beoog om 'n "Electronic Communications and Transaction Bill" teen die einde van 2001 te publiseer vir die regulering van elektroniese kommunikasie en traksaksies. In Wetlike raamwerk en die afdwing van sekere risiko verminderende metodes, byvoorbeeld item limiete, wat gedurende Januarie 2002 in werking gestel word en die wysiging in die kruising van tjeks dui op die drastiese stappe wat aangebring word om internasionaal mededingend te wees, asook by internasionale riglyne in te pas. Daadwerklike pogings om selfde dag verrekeninge in die hoë waardestelsel (SAMOS) te implementeer en te voldoen aan die neergelegde internasionale standaarde. Elektroniese geld word gedefinieer as 'n gememoriseerde waarde of voorafbetaalde produkte waarin rekord van fondse of beskikbare waardes van 'n kliënt gehou word. (Bank of International Settlements, 2001: 1). Verbruikers kry die voordeel van maklik toeganklike en goedkoop betalingsmetodes. (Bank of International Settlements, 1997: 6). Die deelname van nie-finansiële instansies in die betalingsprosesse, daarmee saam die ontwerp en algemene gebruik van onbekende digitale vorms van monetêre waardes hou 'n bedreiging in vir die beheer van die sentrale bank om monetêre beleid af te dwing en finansiële stabiliteit te verseker. Kaartgebaseerde elektroniese geldskema's word in sekere gevalle is die fasiliteit gekombineer met funksionaliteit in die vorm van toegangsbeheer, houer identifikasie, of plaaslike transport kaarte. Netwerk gebaseerde elektroniese geldskema's is slegs in beperkte aantal lande operasioneel of onder ontwikkeling en bestaande wetgewing aangaande betaalstelsels word hoofsaaklik toegepas op die skema's. Daar word voorgestel dat die Suid-Afrikaanse Reserwebank moet op 'n voortdurende basis bestaande en nuwe verskillende betaalstelsels moniteer vir die daarstelling van 'n verlaagde risiko, met 'n stabiele- en veilige omgewing wat steun verleen aan die land se ekonomie, sowel as die omliggende Suider- Afrikaanse lande. Verdere pogings moet aangewend word word om hoë-waarde betaalstelsels (SAMOS) se sistemiese risiko te verminder deur van dieselfde dag vereffening gebruik te maak. Ter afsluiting moet daar met gekoordineerde aksies, wat plaaslik en internasionaal bestaan, aangewend word om finansiële dissipline daar te stel, risko's te bestuur en internasionale handel te bevorder.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is estimated that 70% of sub-Saharan Africa’s urban population resides in informal settlements. Cape Town (South Africa), in particular, has a projected 223 informal settlements within its boundaries (which house almost 136 000 households). The national government has attempted to meet housing needs through the upgrading of informal settlements. In situ upgrading has been seen as a particularly popular route to follow. This study aimed to investigate the City of Cape Town’s governmentality in the in situ upgrading of Makhaza and New Rest in Cape Town and explore the implications of this governmentality for women’s social networks in these two settlements. The study focused on the governmentality elements of rationalities, practices and techniques and counter-conduct. A review of the literature shows little attention has been paid to the various governmentalities (practice, techniques and rationalities) that exist within informal settlement upgrading. The literature has also not paid much attention to how the governmentality of those undertaking informal settlement upgrading, relates to women’s social networks (and their governmentality) within upgraded sites. The research made use of qualitatively-driven methodologies and approaches, employing the techniques of Neighbourhood Social Mapping, Social Network Assessment (SNA), semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, transect walks, observational studies and secondary data gathering. The study found, amongst other things, that the governmentality (rationalities, techniques and practices) used by the City to plan and implement the upgrading of informal settlements differs from that of the women’s social networks. The profound differences in governmentalities have meant that the settlements do not meet the needs of the women and their social networks. In response the women have redesigned their new settlement to meet the needs of their social networks. Integral Theory is used in this thesis to map and better understand the differing governmentalities and their relationship and was used to propose an Integral approach in managing differing governmentalities. The thesis suggests that, in order to understand fully and respond appropriately to the challenges faced in upgrading, those in power need to be aware of and include all perspectives and actors within their upgrading process and practice. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar word beraam dat 70% van sub-Sahara Afrika se stedelike populasie in informele nedersettings woon. Kaapstad (Suid-Afrika), spesifiek, het ‘n beraamde 223 informele nedersettings binne die grense (wat omtrent 136 000 huishoudings huisves). Die nasionale regering het onderneem om behuisings behoefte te voorsien deur die opgradering van informele nedersettings. In situ opgradering is gesien as ‘n besonder gewilde roete om te volg. Hierdie studie het gepoog om die City of Cape Town (die Stad) se governmentality te ondersoek in die opgradering van Makhaza en New Rest in Kaapstad. So ook om die implikasies van hierdie governmentality vir vroue se sosiale netwerke in hierdie nedersettings te verken. Die studie het gefokus op die governmentality (regeringsmentaliteit) beginsels van rationaliteite, praktyke en tegnieke en teen-optrede. ‘n Oorsig van die literatuur toon min aandag is geskenk aan die verskillende governmentalities wat binne opgraderingsprojekte vir informele nedersettings bestaan. Die literatuur het ook nie veel aandag gegee aan hoe die governmentality van die onderneming van die informele nedersettings met betrekking tot vroue se sosiale netwerke (en hul governmentality) binne opgradeerde terreine. Die navorsing het gebruik gemaak van kwaliteits gedrewe metodologie en benaderings, die gebruik van tegnieke van omgewing sosiale kartering, sosiale netwerk beraming, semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude, vraelyste, deursnee wandeling, waarnemings studies en sekondêre data insameling. Die studie het onder andere bevind dat die governmentality (rationaliteite, tegnieke en praktyke), soos gebruik deur die Stad om opgradering van informele nedersettings te beplan en implimenteer, verskil van die van die vroue se sosiale netwerke. Die diepgaande verskille in governmentalities het gelei daartoe dat die nedersettings nie voldoen aan die behoeftes van die vroue en hul sosiale netwerke nie. In reaksie daarop het die vroue die nuwe nedersetting herontwerp om in hul sosiale netwerk behoeftes te voorsien. Integrale Teorie is in hierdie tesis gebruik om die verskille in governmentalities en hul verwantskappe uiteen te sit en beter te kan verstaan en ook om die Integrale benadering in die hantering van verskillende governmetnalities voor te stel. Die tesis dui daarop dat in orde om ten volle te verstaan en toepaslik te reageer op die uitdagings wat gepaard gaan met opgradering moet die wat in beheer is van alle perspektiewe en akteurs binne die opgraderings proses bewus wees en dit in ag neem.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / Please see accompanying Errata document to be viewed with original document. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The current housing backlog facing the informal residents of South Africa is daunting. With current research showing that the backlog is not shrinking fast enough, the stakeholders of the formal and informal housing sector are facing an immense challenge. Most houses constructed after 1994 utilised conventional brick and mortar construction, with alternative means of building homes taking up a negligible share in the total housing supply. The purpose of this study is to test the feasibility of container-based homes as an alternative to brick and mortar homes in South Africa’s low-cost housing supply according to the triple constraints of project management i.e. cost, time and quality. Social acceptance and environmental sustainability are also analysed as two secondary parameters that will influence container-based projects. These parameters form the basis of the three pillars of sustainability, i.e. economic, societal and environmental parameters, which indicates the feasibility of a new design implementation. Two test cases for the feasibility study were designed. The first case considers a modular single-storey residential home, equivalent to standard “Breaking New Ground” housing solutions. The second test case considers a multi-storey, medium-density residential building, capable of housing multiple families .The test cases represent possible container-based solutions, with traditional brick and mortar construction (single and multi-storey) acting as the control solution. The three sustainability parameters act as benchmarks of each solutions’ feasibility, with the control solution acting as the counter-performance example. The comparison of the economic parameter relies on the cost of each design case, its construction time and the quality of the end-product. The bills of quantities were measured against a conventional building type, and it was found that a single-storey solution will prove more costly than a small brick and mortar home. However, the multi-storey solution proves to be feasible when compared to a concrete three-storey structure. Regarding time, the construction of an Intermodal Steel Building Unit (ISBU) home is up to 3 times faster compared to a conventional house. The end-product quality will depend on the quality system used by the contractor and its correct implementation; thus it is not an important dividing factor when comparing conventional versus Alternative Building Technology (ABT) systems. The societal parameter of an ISBU solution rests on its acceptance by the beneficiaries. Traditionally, resistance has met ABT home implementation, as stakeholders consider them as inferior products. A comprehensive survey was carried out in an informal settlement to test this statement. The results show that the majority of beneficiaries prefer conventional homes, unless the ABT home resembles its conventional counterpart. The environmental sustainability of a new product relies primarily on the carbon footprint of the materials and methods used. This was tested by comparing the impact of an ISBU solution with a conventional solution. The “upcycling” (as opposed to recycling) of used containers provides a large environmental benefit when comparing it to newly constructed brick for conventional homes, and thus the impact is lower. The findings of the study show that a single-storey solution utilising containers proves ineffective, as it is more expensive per square meter than a conventional home. However, a multi-storey container solution is feasible, as it is lower in cost (than comparative conventional solutions), faster to construct, allows for higher density expansion of settlements and is more environmentally friendly. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die enorme behuisingsagterstand van informele nedersetters in Suid-Afrika skep 'n geweldige uitdaging vir die rolspelers in die formele behuisingsektor. Huidige navorsing toon dat hierdie agterstand nie vinnig genoeg verminder nie, en baie mense verkeer in nood. Die meerderheid van huise wat opgerig is sedert 1994 maak gebruik van konvensionele baksteen en sement konstruksie, terwyl alternatiewe maniere van konstruksie 'n nietige aandeel het. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die bruikbaarheid van skeepshouer-gebaseerde huise te bepaal in teenstelling met konvensionele baksteen en sement huise, spesifiek vir die lae-koste behuisingsgeval in Suid-Afrika. Dit word uitgevoer volgens die "drietallige beperking" beginsel van projekbestuur, naamlik koste, tyd en kwaliteit parameters. Addisioneel word die sosiale aanvaarbaarheid sowel as die omgewingsvriendelikheid van die konsep getoets teen konvensionele maniere van konstruksie. Hierdie parameters vorm saam die “drie pilare van volhoubaarheid”, wat betrekking het tot ekonomiese-, sosiale- en omgewings-aspekte. Twee toetsgevalle is ontwerp volgens argitektoniese en tegniese standaarde sowel as gemeenskap benodigdhede. Die eerste geval is ontwerp as 'n enkel-verdieping huis, met behulp van modulêre skeepshouers. Die tweede geval is 'n meertallige-verdieping, medium-digtheid residensiële gebou wat verskeie families kan huisves. Die toetsgevalle modelleer verskeie skeepshouer oplossings, terwyl konvensionele konstruksie oplossings dien as beheer gevalle. Elke geval word volgens die drie volhoubaarheids beginsels getoets, met die beheer gevalle wat dien as die teen-prestasie voorbeelde. Die vergelyking van die ekonomiese parameter berus op die koste van elke ontwerp, sy konstruksietyd en die eindproduk kwaliteit. Die lys van hoeveelhede is gemeet teen dié van ʼn konvensionele huis, en daar is bevind dat die enkelverdieping skeepshouer-geval veel duurder sal wees. Die meertallige-verdieping geval aan die ander kant, maak gebruik van baie kostebesparings metodes, en lyk uitvoerbaar. Die tyd-aspek wys dat die konstruksie m.b.v. “Intermodal Steel Building Units” (ISBUs) tot en met 3 keer vinniger te wees teenoor ʼn konvensionele huis. Die eindproduk kwaliteit hang af van die tipe kwaliteit stelsel wat die kontrakteur gebruik, sowel as die korrekte toepassing van hierdie stelsel; dus is dit nie ʼn skeidende faktor tussen alternatiewe en konvensionele boumetodes nie. Die gemeenskaplike aspek van die gebruik van alternatiewe konstruksie berus op die aanvaarding van die huisbewoners. Gemeenskappe het tradisioneel nie ʼn hoë dunk van Alternatiewe Bou-Tegnologie (ABT) behuising nie, aangesien hulle dit as swak kwaliteit bestempel. Om hierdie stelling te toets is ʼn opname uitgevoer in ʼn informele nedersetting. Die resultate wys dat die meerderheid inwoners die konvensionele opsie verkies. Daar is wel bevind dat die inwoners ʼn ISBU huis sal oorweeg indien dit ʼn visuele ooreenkoms toon met ʼn konvensionele huis. Die omgewingsvolhoubaarheid van ʼn nuwe produk berus hoofsaaklik op die koolstof-voetspoor van die materiale en boumetodes wat gebruik is. Hierdie aspek is getoets deur ʼn ISBU oplossing se omgewings-impak te meet teen dié van ʼn konvensionele huis. Die “upcycling” voordeel wat skeepshouers gebruik gee ʼn groot voordeel teenoor die konstruksie van konvensionele huise, siende dat min nuwe materiale gebruik word. Dus is die totale omgewings impak laer as die van ʼn konvensionele huis. Die bevindinge van die navorsing wys dat ʼn enkelverdieping ISBU oplossing onprakties is in terme van koste per vierkante meter, aangesien dit veel duurder as ʼn konvensionele metode is. Die meertallige-verdieping geval is wel uitvoerbaar, aangesien dit ʼn laer koste tot gevolg het, vinniger gebou word, hoër-digtheid behuising bevorder en meer omgewings-vriendelik is.

再保險之目的，在於提供保險人保險保障。其方式乃再保險人就原保險人在原保險契約中所負之給付責任，予以部份或全部的補償。再保險契約就再保險人之再保險給付責任所為之約定，最常見者為「同一命運原則」之約定。依「同一命運條款」之字面解釋，此條款係指再保險人須與原保險人「同一命運」，於原保險人對被保險人為保險給付後，補償原保險人因對被保險人為保險給付所生之損害。 依據損害補償原則，須保險人之保險給付在保險契約及再保險契約之承保範圍內，再保險人始負再保險給付之責任。為了避免嚴格依據損害補償原則解釋再保險人之責任，造成保險人無法取得再保險保障之結果，並提高對於保險人之保障，再保險契約雙方乃藉由同一命運條款的相關約定，約定保險人只須證明其已向被保險人為補償給付且其給付係依「誠信」所為，再保險人即須同其命運，向保險人為補償給付。再保險人此一契約義務，乃再保險契約雙方當事人基於契約自由，於再保險契約中特別加入同一命運條款的結果。 保險人之「誠信」乃同一命運原則適用之基石，此為法院所共同肯認。然而，對於同一命運原則於個案中之具體適用，法院之看法似乎並無足夠的一致性。究竟，決定再保險契約雙方當事人權利義務的同一命運原則，法院如何解釋其適用上發生之爭議？又，法院對於抽象的誠信原則如何解釋？在同一命運原則的背景下，再保險人是否可以提出何種抗辯以免除其保險給付責任？最後，是否這些問題的解答可以有某程度的預測可能性，以供日後再保險契約雙方草擬同一命運條款之參考？ 針對保險人對被保險人所應為之補償，再保險人與原保險人可能有不同解釋，前者認為再保險人與保險人同一命運之範圍，應以原保險及再保險約定之範圍為限；後者則認為凡保險人所給付與被保險人者，再保險人皆須與其同一命運，負擔給付責任。縱使再保險契約雙方皆主張其以再保險契約之約定為給付責任範圍之界定基礎，然基於利益彼此對立之立場，雙方對於「契約約定」往往有不同詮釋。再保險契約雙方間之爭議，實務上常見者如，原保險人對被保險人所給付之通融賠款（Ex-gratia payment）、懲罰性賠償（Punitive damages）等，是否屬於再保險人與保險人同一命運之範圍？將此類爭議一般化，須探究者為，同一命運條款何種程度限制了再保險人對原保險人之給付表示異議的權利？ 另外，倘若再保險契約中沒有同一命運條款的約定，是否可認為此條款為再保險契約所「默示」（Implied）？此問題涉及同一命運原則的歷史背景，與再保險市場的運作實務息息相關，對於契約的解釋方法也有重要啟示。 同一命運原則為再保險交易發展史上，最常受到爭議的問題之一。現今之再保險交易環境已然愈趨複雜，不僅是所保危險之價額日趨提高，投入再保險交易之保險人數增加且交易類型複雜化，皆使得再保險交易雙方之風險分配及責任分擔，不再可以全然依賴保險人對於誠信原則之遵守。反之，應同時強調再保險與保險之不同，亦即，前者係由專業之保險人為交易雙方而進行之交易，故再保險人應可依其專業，對所保危險主動向保險人提出詢問，此亦顯示了保險人及再保險人間彼此合作愈趨重要，為再保險人負擔再保險給付責任之正當性基礎。本文嘗試處理以上提出的爭議問題，並對可能之解決提出建議。 / The reinsurance loss settlement clause, which appears in a variety of forms of wordings, historically has been one of the most difficult aspects of reinsurance law and practice. In recent days, more and more litigation has arisen as a result of such clauses. This study centers upon the interesting and oftentimes confusing issue of the scope and effect of such clauses, and how they define both the reinsured’s and the reinsurers’ liability. The purpose of reinsurance is to provide insurance protection by the reinsurer for the reinsured, namely, the insurer. At the beginning of reinsurance history when there were only a small number of insurers operating in the insurance market, insurers were fairly familiar with one another, and that resulted in a minimum of formality in doing business. In terms of reinsurance, reinsurers, when asked to pay by their reinsured, normally did not go out of their way to initiate a de novo review or assessment of the risk insured. The main reasons for such practice were, for one, insurers were so familiar with their business partners that they did not see the need for such re-assessment of the risk, and for another, in the past, the nature of the risks insured was not as complicated as those we are faced with nowadays. With a view to enhancing business efficiency and providing better protection for insurers, the parties that engaged in a reinsurance agreement oftentimes would insert into the agreement a “follow the fortunes” or “follow the settlements” clause. Such clauses bound the reinsurers to follow the fortunes/settlements of their reinsured without the reinsured’s liability having been proved, and restrained the reinsurers from refusing to indemnify the reinsured on the ground that liability did not exist under the original policy, provided that the reinsured had acted in a bona fide and businesslike way. In a word, the existence of the loss settlement clause was a logical consequence of the purpose of reinsurance, and the reinsurers’ obligation under such clauses was conditioned on the reinsured’s good faith. Reinsurance loss settlement clauses have been interpreted by the court rather favorably for the reinsured. Courts would normally find coverage for the reinsured, once they decided that the reinsured had acted in good faith in settling with the insured, even if they held that the reinsured had not been legally liable. This fact highlights the importance of the reinsured’s duty of utmost good faith in reinsurance law and practice. However, what exactly is good faith, and what are the reinsured’s obligations under the good faith requirement? Is there a general rule that the courts have developed to justify their finding of the reinsured’s good faith? If good faith, being abstract in itself and susceptible to courts’ subjective discretion, serves as the “standard” to evaluate or define the liability of the parties to a reinsurance agreement, how does it usually function? Does it at times seem so abstract and variable that the reinsurance agreement parties have a hard time predicting their liability under such a standard? Also, in this study, the questions of the implication of loss settlement clauses and the scope or effect of such clauses are explored. The former question asks, where the reinsurance contracts do not contain any “follow the fortunes or settlements” provisions, does the law, custom or practice read into the contracts any obligation on the reinsurer to follow its reinsured’s fortunes or settlements? This question is important in that it deals with the applicability of loss settlement clauses, and thus has a fundamental impact on how reinsurance contracts are interpreted. The latter question aims at clarifying how loss settlement clauses are applied to pertinent areas such as ex gratia payments, punitive damages, reinsurers’ liability caps, payments related to the Wellington Agreement and claims cooperation clauses. Specific examples are given here in order to better understand how loss settlements clauses are put to practical use. Discussion concerned with this question also demonstrates how a loosely worded loss settlement clause could give rise to disputes between the parties. To better define the parties’ rights and obligations under a reinsurance agreement, a more detailed review of how the reinsurance environment as a whole is functioning and how the courts interpret reinsurance loss settlement clauses is required. This issue will be even more worth pondering now that we are seeing a more complex reinsurance market where the parties’ interests are potentially conflicting, which is per se a challenge to the general view that the reinsurers should follow the fortunes or settlements of the reinsured.

This thesis makes two related arguments regarding the academic field of migration and refugee studies (MARS) and the control of migration by UK state agencies. The first, and more empirical one, is that the former facilitated the latter: the field’s members provided symbolic, technical, and pedagogic assistance to two non-departmental public bodies in controlling migration. The second, and more theoretical, argument of this thesis is that MARS facilitated migration control because of culture, power, and structure. It is through the field’s implication in the coercion of its human subjects by UK state agencies that MARS academics a) answered their calling, b) assisted class rule as ideologists, and c) separated sacred and profane by policing endogamy. The introduction describes the existing literature on the relationship between MARS and migration control. The consensus is that the former facilitated the latter. However, these studies fail to provide detailed accounts of the ways in which it did so. Chapter One defines the elements of my more empirical argument: MARS and migration control. An historical narrative outlines the institutional development of the field since its beginnings in the early 1980s. Then a new model for understanding migration control – i.e., migrant CODAR – is described. Chapter Two uses this model to trace the actor network through which MARS academics facilitated the restriction of their human subjects’ mobility by the UK state agencies of the Advisory Panel on Country Information and the Migration Advisory Committee. Chapters Three, Four, and Five use Weberian, Marxist, and Durkheimian anthropological approaches (respectively) to explain the implication of MARS and migration control that is described in Chapters One and Two. Finally, the conclusion of the thesis discusses its contributions to both more particular (i.e., the literature surveyed in the introduction on MARS and migration control) and more general (i.e., anthropology) scholarly fields.

This thesis challenges the prevailing academic and journalistic consensus that ASEAN states, bound by a cast-iron norm of non-interference, do not intervene in other states’ internal affairs. It argues that ASEAN states have frequently engaged in acts of intervention, often with very serious, negative consequences. Using methods of critical historical sociology, the thesis reconstructs the history of ASEAN’s non-interference principle and interventions from ASEAN’s inception onwards, drawing on sources including ASEAN and UN documents, US and UK archives, and policymaker interviews. It focuses especially on three case studies: East Timor, Cambodia, and Myanmar. The thesis argues that both the emergence of ideologies of non-intervention and their violation can be explained by the social conflicts animating state policies. Non-interference was developed by embattled, authoritarian, capitalist elites in an attempt to bolster their defence of capitalist social order from radical challenges. Where adherence to non-intervention failed to serve this purpose, it was discarded or manipulated to permit cross-border ‘containment’ operations. After communism was defeated in the ASEAN states, foreign policy continued to promote the interests of dominant, state-linked business groups and oligarchic factions. Non-interference shifted to defend domestic power structures from the West’s liberalising agenda. However, ASEAN elites continued meddling in neighbouring states even as containment operations were discarded. This contributed to the collapse of Cambodia’s ruling coalition in 1997, and ASEAN subsequently intervened to restore it. The 1997 Asian financial crisis dealt a crippling blow to ASEAN. To contain domestic unrest in Indonesia, core ASEAN states joined a humanitarian intervention in East Timor in 1999. In the decade since, non-interference has been progressively weakened as the core members struggle to regain domestic legitimacy and lost international political and economic space. This is expressed most clearly in ASEAN’s attempts to insert itself into Myanmar’s democratisation process after decades of failed ‘constructive engagement’.

Internally Displaced Persons ('IDPs') outnumber refugees by two to one and often have the same fears, needs and wants as refugees recognised as such under international law. However, refugee status entails international protection, while IDPs are left to the protection of their own state, which may, but by no means necessarily, be the very entity that has forced them to flee in the first place. In recent years, there have been significant developments in the realm of IDP protection. This includes the conclusion of two regional treaties on the protection of IDPs, the development of relevant soft law instruments, and the reformed 'Cluster Approach' of humanitarian response. Although the increased focus on IDP protection is a welcome development, the UNHCR has expressed the fear that 'activities for the internally displaced may be (mis)interpreted as obviating the need for international protection and asylum.' This thesis represents the first legal analysis of the relationship between the protection of IDPs and International Refugee Law. It will discuss five key challenges in this respect. First, the challenge of drawing the attention of the international community to the plight of IDPs; second, the challenge of developing an appropriate framework for the protection of IDPs; third, the challenge of ensuring that internal protection is not interpreted as a substitute for asylum; fourth; the challenge of determining the relationship between complementary protection and internal displacement; and fifth, the challenge of ensuring that IDP protection in an inter-agency context does not trigger the application of Article 1D of the Refugee Convention, rendering the Convention inapplicable to the recipients of that protection. This thesis will conclude by setting out the future challenges in the relationship between IDP protection and International Refugee Law, by identifying questions left open for further research, and by illustrating the overall impact and importance of this thesis' findings.

La croissance des bidonvilles interroge les modalités de production de la ville, notamment dans les pays en développement. Cette thèse montre le cas de Bangkok où les « communautés denses », outre la flexibilité de leur architecture, cristallisent souvent des pratiques sociales et une histoire commune propres au lieu. Rarement prises en compte dans la métropole et victimes d'une image négative, elles font preuve d'un dynamisme économique et associatif stimulant et représentent un enjeu fort face aux notions de développement durable et de droit à la ville, à l'échelle locale comme internationale. Au travers d'une analyse spatiale principalement, d'entretiens d'acteurs et d'observations de terrain, nous abordons l'habitat spontané comme une construction incrémentale issue de processus d'appropriation individuelle. Nous l'analysons autour de trois configurations ou « contextes d'émergence » de ces constructions : l'habitat spontané « ancien », « pur » et « greffé ». Cette première configuration interroge la notion de patrimoine au sujet de constructions populaires remontant aux origines de l'urbanisation à Bangkok. L'habitat spontané pur tend en parallèle à former de véritables morceaux de ville attractifs et finement reliés à leur contexte urbain. Avec les greffes spontanées observées sur les immeubles sociaux de relogement, l'habitat spontané s'affirme comme un mode de construction viable et un outil de développement urbain. L'habitat spontané entraîne progressivement le repositionnement des acteurs de l'urbain, la mise en place de processus de projet alternatifs qui renouvellent la production courante du logement vers une construction urbaine partagée. / The importance of spontaneous construction raises some questions about the modalities of urban production, especially in developing countries. This thesis presents the case of Bangkok, where the "dense communities," besides the flexibility of their architecture, often crystallize a common site specific history. Rarely taken into account in the metropolis and victims of a negative image, they show, at a local and international level, a stimulating economic and associative dynamism and represent a major challenge in light of the concepts of sustainable development and the right to the city. Through a mainly spatial analysis, interviews and field observations, we approach spontaneous settlements as an incremental construction, result of a process of individual appropriation. We then analyze three configurations or "contexts of emergence" of these constructions: “ancient”, “pure” and "grafted". The first configuration questions the notion of heritage in relation to these popular constructions, dating back to the origins of Bangkok’s urbanization. At the same time, the pure spontaneous housing settlements tend to become real attractive city districts, finely linked to their urban context. With the added spontaneous grafts, which we observed on the social re-housing buildings, informal settlements become a viable way to build the city and a tool for urban development. Spontaneous housing leads progressively to a repositioning of urban actors, the implementation of alternative design processes, renewing the current models of housing production to a shared urban construction

Bahir Dar is one of the rapidly growing Ethiopian cities characterized by the rise of informal settlements. The expansion of spontaneous neighbourhoods in Bahir Dar is, among other things, conditioned by land management policies and practices. Thus, the intention of this research was to explore the influences of land management on the prevalence of informal settlements in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia. So as to meet the study targets this research employed mixed method approach, and the data were gathered from various sources by applying different methods. The quantitative data was drawn from 156 random samples through household surveys. It was collected from four FGDs, interview of eight community elders, sub-cities and municipality officials and code enforcement professionals. Furthermore, case studies, published and unpublished documents, photographs, and satellite images were used to enrich the analysis. To analyse quantitative data, SPSS statistical software was used to extract descriptive statistics, to test hypotheses and to draw tables and various types of graphs. Content analysis was employed to analyse qualitative data. It was found that expansion of informal settlements in Bahir Dar was caused, among others, by Poverty of inhabitants, rural-urban migration, limited capacity of the city to deliver basic services, low housing supply and high housing demand, and limitations in land lease laws, as well deficiency of essential amenities like water, sanitation and electricity. The influences of land management policies and practices that resulted to prevalence of informal settlements were found to be the subjective implementation of housing and land leasing policies, harsh government farm expropriation and very low compensation payments, weak governance practices in land administration, frequent demolishing of houses and precarious security of tenure. Even though informal settlements help to address the housing shortage in the city and contribute to environmental management in some areas of the city, it is largely intimidating environmental management, deteriorating the livelihoods and thus brought about the unsustainable city development. In order to address the challenges of informal settlements, it was suggested that legal framework to formalize informal settlements, develop an effective and efficient land administration system, improving good governance in land administration, establish land and housing policies favouring low-income population, and bring about attitude change favourable to urban development are essential. / Environmental Sciences / D. Litt. et Phil. (Environmental Management)