Twenty Sierra Leonean rural illiterate mothers were querried about their perceptions of the factors related to Kwashiorkor. Demographic data was hand tabulated to determine the frequency of parents' occupations, pregnancies, live and stillbirths, living and dead children, and causes of children's deaths. Chi-square analyses were done to assess the distribution of responses to questions about 19 beliefs which the researcher thought were related to Kwashiorkor. Student t-test was used to determine the differences in the total number and outcome of pregnancies between women who agreed and disagreed about the role of four of the factors which tended to show or showed significance with chi-square analyses.The families were subsistence farmers. In addition, 65 percent or the husbands had other jobs. Combined, the 20 women had 191 pregnancies, 166 live births, (87 percent of pregnancies), 25 (13 percent) stillbirths, 82 living children (43 percent of pregnancies and 49 percent of live births). The women lost through death 84 (50.6 percent) of the 166 live born children.The average woman experienced 9.6 pregnancies, resulting in 8.3 live births, and 1.3 stillbirths, had an average of 4.1 living children and had lost an average of 4.2 live born children. The data indicated that the major problem with infant/child mortality occurred after birth. Protein-Energy Malnutrition accounted for 38.1 percent of the children's deaths.Of the 19 factors about which women were querried in relation to role in Kwashiorkor, to only 4, namely “Witchcraft,” “Religious beliefs,” “Grandmother's advice,” and “Mother-in-law's advice” did less than half of the women agree. The majority of women agreed that 15 of the factors were associated with Kwashiorkor.That indicated the women had supportable understanding of factors truly related to Kwashiorkor.Three constructs, beliefs about “Witchcraft,” “Introduction of other foods,” and “Immunizations,” differentiated incidence and outcome of pregnancy among women. However, belief about the importance of “Immunizations” differentiated infant/child mortality and will be most useful in future research to analyze differences and to identify groups at greatest risk of child mortality.Ball State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306

La recherche que nous avons réalisée dans le cadre de ce mémoire porte sur le thème de politique pénale en matière de responsabilité des enfants soldats, auteurs de crimes graves de droit international. En effet, depuis plusieurs décennies, de nombreux chefs de guerre s'engagent à recruter et à enrôler les enfants comme soldats, et à les faire participer au déroulement des hostilités. Ces derniers sont victimes d'abus et de mauvais traitements de la part des adultes, et sont souvent, sous l'effet de la drogue ou de la contrainte, amenés à commettre des crimes graves de droit international. D'où les raisons pour lesquelles ils sont, dans de nombreux cas, qualifiés de "victimes et de bourreaux" . De plus, il est à souligner que nonobstant les nombreuses initiatives de la communauté internationale visant à promouvoir la protection des enfants dans les conflits armés, leur vulnérabilité continue de faire soulever de grandes inquiétudes, notamment en terme d'effectivité et d'efficacité des normes internationales en vigueur. Notons que la rédaction de ce mémoire est calquée essentiellement sur la documentation écrite. En ce sens, il a été décidé, tout d'abord, d'analyser et de critiquer le cadre juridique de la protection et de la responsabilité pénale des enfants dans les conflits armés, en vue de faire ressortir ses forces et ses faiblesses. Ensuite, l'accent est mis sur l'état de la justice pénale internationale, particulièrement sur l'expérience de la Sierra Leone en matière de justice transitionnelle tendant non seulement vers la justice, mais aussi vers la réparation, la réinsertion sociale et la réconciliation nationale. Enfin, nous avons mis en évidence les diverses facettes du discours sur la sanction pénale (nature, fonctions, ses objectifs et ses finalités). Ainsi, ces axes d'analyse nous ont permis de comprendre que dans la logique d'une justice transitionnelle, les questions concernant la responsabilité pénale des enfants soldats, en particulier ceux âgés de 15 à 18 ans, ne peuvent être résolues uniquement selon les rationalités restitutive et prospective. Mais qu'il est important, compte tenu, d'une part, des exigences de paix et de réconciliation nationale, et de l'autre, le poids de la responsabilité subjective sur la responsabilité objective en matière de crimes graves de droit international perpétrés par des mineurs, de traiter leur cas d'après une politique pénale intégrant des éléments de la rationalité restaurative afin de pouvoir répondre aux attentes des victimes, des délinquants et de la société. C'est ce qui est exprimé dans nos différentes recommandations. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Enfant-Soldat, Responsabilité pénale, Majorité pénale, Justice transitionnelle (justice pénale classique, justice restaurative), Politique pénale.

Syftet med uppsatsen har varit att genom en fallstudie av kriget i Sierra Leone (1991-2002) sökaefter konventionella inslag i aktören Revolutionary United Fronts (RUF) våldsbeteende ochdärigenom undersöka huruvida krigets natur kan beskrivas utifrån ett rationellt eller irrationelltperspektiv. För att uppfylla syftet med uppsatsen har två frågeställningar använts; ”Finns detkonventionella inslag i aktören RUF:s våldsbeteende?” och ”Kan krigets natur i Sierra Leonebeskrivas utifrån ett rationellt eller irrationellt perspektiv?”. Teorianknytningen utgörs av Carl vonClausewitz teorier om krigets natur.Resultatet av undersökningen visar att konventionella inslag i form av åtskillnad mellankombattanter och icke-kombattanter, konventionella medel och metoder samt politiskt syfte går attfinna i RUF:s våldsbeteende.Sammantaget visar fallstudien på att RUF:s våldsbeteende inte kännetecknades av ett enda kaos,ett allas krig mot alla på etniska, religiösa eller ideologiska grunder och därför inte kan beskrivassom ett irrationellt fenomen. I stället menar jag att krigets natur som det gestaltade sig under krigeti Sierra Leone går att beskriva utifrån ett rationellt perspektiv, typiskt för konventionella krig, medgrund i Clausewitz teorier om krigets natur. / The aim of this essay has been to search for the presence of conventionalfeatures in the violent behaviour of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF)through a case study of the war in Sierra Leone (1991-2002) and therebyexamine whether the nature of war can be described from a rational orirrational perspective.To interpret and achieve the aim of the essay I have used Carl von Clausewitztheories on the nature of war. In order to analyse the presence of conventionalfeatures in the violent behaviour of the RUF, three indicators are used;a distinction between combatants and non-combatants, conventional meansand methods and a political purpose. These indicators are derived fromClausewitz trinity of war (people, army and government).The essay concludes that there are indeed presences of conventional features inthe violent behaviour of the RUF.The essay further concludes that the behaviour of the RUF was notcharacterized by total chaos, a war by all against all, caused by ethnic, religiousand ideological reasons. The behaviour of the RUF can therefore not bedescribed as an irrational phenomenon.Instead, the essay argues that the nature of war as it turned out in Sierra Leonecan be described from a rational perspective, typical for conventional wars,based upon the theories by Carl von Clausewitz on the nature of war.Keywords: Sierra Leone, Revolutionary United Front (RUF), low-intensityconflict, new wars, Clausewitz, rational perspective. / Avdelning: ALB - Slutet Mag 3 C-upps.Hylla: Upps. ChP 02-04

The recruitment, enlistment and use of children younger than fifteen to participate actively in hostilities is prohibited in customary international law as well as in several international legal instruments. The use of child soldiers is, despite of the prohibition, a widespread phenomenon with 300 000 as the estimated number of child soldiers in national armies as well as in various rebel and insurgent groups in the world today. Although the problem is world-wide; most recent focus have been on Africa where children have served and still serve in ongoing conflicts in various functions including but not limited to front line soldiers, messengers, guards and sex-slaves. Many of the world‟s child soldiers are girls that are facing the risks of sexual abuse and discrimination. In this thesis the 1996-2002 civil war in Sierra Leone will serve as an example of a conflict were children were used as soldiers.Prohibition against the use of child soldiers can be found in international legal instruments in both human rights law and international humanitarian law. It can also be found in instruments in the fields of international labor law and prohibition against slavery. The provisions differ in their definition of a child soldier; concerning age limit as well as the child‟s function during the conflict. There are also differences in the responsibility of states to protect children against being used as soldiers. This particularly affects girl soldiers since they often have their primary tasks behind the front line and thus are not usually included in the more narrow definitions of child soldiers.Two courts; the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) are used as examples of enforcement mechanisms. The SCSL as being the first court to deliver convictions for the use of child soldiers as well as thoroughly discussing the illegality of the use of child soldiers has been of importance in the fight against the use of child soldiers. The ICC will be the enforcement mechanism of the future and it has already prosecuted for the use of child soldiers. The SCSL has raised the awareness and started the struggle against impunity for those responsible for using child soldiers but it is the ICC that will have to continue the fight, although with some obstacles to overcome.

The recent civil war in Sierra Leone (1991-2002) saw massive migrations amongst the civilian population and widespread damage to villages and towns. This study combines elements of military and cultural geography to ask the questions of how the events of the war changed the cultural landscape and how the cultural landscape influenced the course of the war. Fieldwork for this study was conducted during the summer of 2005 in the Eastern Province and included numerous semi-structured interviews regarding the landscape histories of villages, towns, and various temporary camps. These findings revealed that a clear relationship existed between the civil war and the cultural landscape. On the one hand, the war caused dramatic changes in the morphology of the cultural landscape, creating three distinct landscapes (pre-war, wartime, and post-war), while on the other hand the cultural landscape went far to structure the character of the war. In order to understand how the cultural landscape structured the war one must first consider how the landscape was perceived by each major faction (Revolutionary United Front, Sierra Leone Army, and Civil Defense Forces) as presenting a unique set of risks and opportunities. This perception was based in their strategic intentions and capabilities. Intentions can be understood as military objectives (derived from political goals), while capabilities can be understood as factors which constrain and enable action. Since each faction had different military objectives and capabilities they each perceived the landscape in a unique manner and this perception influenced their military operations. It is recommended that cultural geographers begin to study the impacts of war on the landscape and that military geographers expand their focus on the physical landscape by taking into account the role of the cultural landscape and environmental perception.

Diss. Uppsala : Univ., 2008.

Thesis (D. Min.)--Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2008. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 237, 242-246).

The trade in human beings, or Trafficking in Persons (TiP) is global and affecting every country. In the last years, increasing attention has been paid to TiP for the purpose of sexual exploitation. This led to a growing need to tackle this phenomenon. Only recently, the relationship between TiP and armed conflict has been acknowledged but remains under-studied. Cameron and Newman (2008) have outlined a framework in which structural factors linked to proximate factors could have explanatory value on the relationship between armed conflict and TiP. This thesis analyzes two cases of armed conflict, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Sierra Leone, attempting to explain the increase in TiP of women and girls for the purpose of sexual exploitation by applying this theoretical framework. In this qualitative research a comparative method is used in applying the framework to two case studies, aiming to identify the explanatory value of Cameron and Newman’s (2008) framework. It is found that the general explanatory value of the framework is high and the proximate factors can be classified as: a fully explanatory proximate factor, case dependent proximate factors, and conflict-phase proximate factors. In addition, this thesis is identifying some elements that could influence TiP of women and girls for the purpose of sexual exploitation during conflict and post-conflict that could be of added value to this framework, namely: the implementation of government strategies, corruption of non-government officials, economic deterioration as a consequence of migration, and involvement of peacekeepers and members of the international community in TiP of women and girls for the purpose of sexual exploitation.

Many low matrix-porosity hydrocarbon reservoirs are productive because permeability is controlled by natural fractures. The understanding of basic fracture properties is critical in reducing geological risk and therefore reducing well costs and increasing well recovery. Unfortunately, neither geophysics nor borehole methods are, so far, accurate in the acquisition of key fracture attributes, such as density, porosity, spacing and conductivity. This study proposes a new protocol to predict key fracture characteristics of subsurface carbonate rocks and describes how using a relatively low-cost but rock-based method it is possible to obtain accurate geological information from rock samples to predict fracture attributes in nearby but unsampled areas. This methodology is based on the integration of observations of diagenetic fabrics and fracture analyses of carbonate rocks, using outcrops from the Lower Cretaceous Cupido Formation in the Monterrey Salient of the Sierra Madre Oriental, northeastern Mexico. Field observations and petrographic studies of crosscutting relations and fracture-fill mineralogy and texture distinguish six principal coupled fracturing-cementation events. Two fracture events named F1 and F2 are characterized by synkinematic calcite cement that predates D2 regional dolomitization. A third fracture event (F3) is characterized by synkinematic dolomite fill, contemporaneous with D2 dolomitization of host strata. The fourth event (F4) is characterized by synkinematic D3 baroque dolomite; this event postdates D2. The fifth fracture event (F5) is characterized by C3 synkinematic calcite, and postdates D3 dolomite. Finally, flexural slip faulting (F6) is characterized by C3t calcite, and postdates D3 dolomite. Carbon and oxygen stable isotopes were used to validate the paragenetic sequences proposed for the Cupido Formation rocks. The dolomite isotopic signatures are consistent with increasing precipitation temperatures for the various fracture cements, as is expected if fractures grew during progressive burial conditions. Three main groups of calcite cement can be differentiated isotopically. Late calcite cement may have precipitated from cool waters under shallow burial conditions, possibly during exhumation of the SMO. The development of the Structural Diagenetic Petrographic Study protocol, and its integration with geological, geophysical and engineering data, can be applied to oil fields in fractured carbonates such as those located in Mexico, to validate its applicability. / text

The Sierra Mojada district consists of multiple types of mineral concentrations ranging from polymetallic sulfide deposits, "non-sulfide Zn" (NSZ) deposits, and a Pb carbonate deposit hosted by Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous carbonates. This study focuses on the two non-sulfide Zn deposits, the Smithsonite Manto and the Iron Oxide Manto, that occur south of the San Marcos fault. The Smithsonite Manto shows karst features, including internal sediments interbanded with smithsonite (ZnCO₃). The Iron Oxide Manto consists of strata-bound zones dominantly of hemimorphite (Zn₄Si₂O₇ (OH)₂·H₂O) that fills pores in Fe-oxides. The mineralogy of the NSZ mineralization consists of smithsonite, hemimorphite and Zn clays (sauconite) associated mainly with calcite and Mn-Fe-oxides. Zn clays are abundant in the Smithsonite Manto, but no Zn clays have been found in the Iron Oxide Manto. This project attempts to constrain the origin of the NSZ concentrations through petrographic and mineralogical study of major Zn-bearing minerals, and their carbon and oxygen stable isotopes and Pb isotope geochemistry. Smithsonite in the Smithsonite Manto occurs as botryoidal aggregates consisting of scalenohedral or rhombohedral microcrystals and banded colloform or massive smithsonite in open spaces, whereas smithsonite in the Iron Oxide Manto occurs as rhombic microcrystals grown in pore spaces or finely intergrown with Fe-oxides. Both Fe-poor and Fe-rich smithsonite are found in the Iron Oxide Manto. Under optical-CL, smithsonite displays complex growth zoning that can be related to variable trace element content. Trace elements semiquantitatively analyzed using LA-ICP-MS show that most blue luminescent smithsonite has lower Mn contents than pink to bright red luminescent zones in smithsonite. Preliminary fluid inclusion petrography in hemimorphite and calcite suggests that fluid composition can be related to precipitation of NSZ minerals from freshwater to slightly saline waters. Calculated salinities for two phase (liquid +vapor) and single phase (liquid) inclusions in hemimorphite range between 0.0 and 1.6 wt. % NaCl equivalent, and salinities of inclusions in calcite were between 0.0 and 1.1 wt. % NaCl equivalent. The oxygen isotope values for smithsonite are relatively constant (avg. [delta]¹⁸O[subscriptVSMOW] = 21.9 ± 0.5[per mille]), whereas [delta]¹³C[subscriptVPDB] values range from -8.4 to -1.1 [per mille]. The oxygen isotope values in late calcite are within the same range of smithsonite, whereas the average values of the carbon isotope are lower by 5 [per mille]. Formational temperature of smithsonite is calculated to be between 26 ~ 40 °C using the modern groundwater composition at Cuatro Ciénegas. Similar Pb isotopic compositions of smithsonite and cerussite to galena suggest the source of metals in the NSZ deposits presumably originate from the sulfide deposits. / text