This study explores the effect of changing ecological conditions on female social organization among free-ranging vervet monkeys (Cholorocebus aethiops pygerythrus) in the Klein Karoo, South Africa. Comparison was made between a previous study conducted during a period of drought in 2009, and my own study conducted when conditions were much wetter and hence, less ecologically stressful. In addition, animals in the present study also experienced conditions of low demographic stress. Compared to 2009, females displayed lower rates of competition and aggression, did not compete for access to grooming partners, and did not preferentially groom those of high rank, nor did they do so more frequently. Females did, however, preferentially associate spatially with those they groomed most; a finding in contrast to the previous study. Females did not groom those of adjacent ranks more frequently, nor was there any relationship between rank difference and spatial association. In addition, there were rank differences in vigilance were found between females, and vigilance costs overall were affected by total group size. Overall, these findings support some aspects of the socioecological model used to predict group structure in primates, but other aspects of social organization remain puzzling, and may reflect larger overall group sizes in the Samara population, which changes patterns of engagement between females in ways not fully captured by current models. / xi, 122 leaves ; 29 cm

Social dominance relationships are formed within numerous animal species and reduce costly fights over resources. Dominant individuals often enjoy greater access to important resources such as food and mating partners, and are generally more aggressive, bold, active and explorative compared to subdominant individuals. These behavioural traits can differ among individuals, but they can also be consistent within the individual, thereby describing the individual’s personality type. However, the causal direction of the observed correlation between dominance and personality is not well studied. One possibility is that some personality types have higher chances of obtaining a dominant social position. This would suggest that personality has consequences for fitness. Another possible explanation is that possessing different social positions gives rise to consistent behavioural differences among individuals on various timescales. If social status has a lasting effect on behaviour, social status would constitute a ‘stable state’ that explains some of the diversity of personality types that has been observed in a multitude of animal species. Dominance and personality may also share underlying proximate factors. In this thesis, I investigate the relationship between social dominance and personality using male domestic fowl, Gallus gallus domesticus. The species is group-living with pronounced dominance hierarchies, and dominance increases male access to mating partners. I show that some aspects of personality, exploration, vigilance and in particular aggressiveness, increased a male’s chances of obtaining dominance (paper III, IV, V), and that aggressiveness can be even more important than body weight and ornament size (comb size, paper V) or recent experience of winning or losing (paper IV). Winning a social interaction resulted in an increase in aggressiveness, while a decrease was seen in males that experienced a loss (paper IV). By observing behaviour before and after changes in male dominance relationships, I further show that a recent (2 days earlier) change in social status induced behavioural adjustments to the new social status in activity, exploration and vigilance (paper I). By extending the time of the new social relationship to 3 weeks, I show that such behavioural changes did not continue (paper II). Finally, I show that the social environment during juvenile development had little impact on adult male competitiveness (paper V). Social interactions appear to have several short-term effects on behaviour, but did not contribute significantly to variation and long-term consistency of personality in male fowl. Instead, a male's personality, and in particular his aggressiveness, affected the outcome of dominance interactions. Overall, my studies reveal important consequences of individual differences in behaviour, and contribute to the highly sought-after empirical testing of hypotheses explaining variation in animal personality. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript. Paper 5: Manuscript.</p>

[pt] Nesta dissertação, procurar-se-á compreender a escravidão por meio de análise histórica de sociedades escravocratas para, só então, partir para o caso brasileiro. Elucidar-se-á que a hierarquia social constitui a chave para a compreensão da instituição escravocrata através da História. A análise da escravidão desde a antiguidade bíblica mostra que ao longo do tempo a instituição moldou-se a diferentes culturas e povos, trazendo sempre uma característica basilar: a hierarquia social como legitimadora do controle de algumas pessoas sobre outras. O caso brasileiro não foi diferente, mas com nuanças notórias. No Brasil, paralelamente à hierarquia, o amálgama das três raças permitiu que a miscigenação fosse inserida no código social brasileiro, com fortes ramificações após o fim da sociedade escravocrata. Na sociedade brasileira, fortemente hierarquizada, a mestiçagem serviu para dissolver, ou melhor, aproximar as camadas sociais, mantendo diferenciações originais que são de grau e não de qualidade. Sendo assim, para o melhor entendimento das relações raciais pós - abolição, o estudo das heranças e particularidades da escravidão torna-se substancial. / [en] This dissertation seeks to study slavery through an analysis of the institution of slavery in history and then focuses on the Brazilian slavery system. The work explains that social hierarchy constitutes the key to understand slavery through history. Ever since biblical time, slavery was forged in a number of different cultures and societies with the same characteristic: social hierarchy as the element that legitimated the control of a few by others. The Brazilian case was not different but had significant particularities. In Brazil, parallel to social hierarchy, the amalgam of the three races permitted miscegenation to be inserted in the Brazilian social code, with strong ramifications even after emancipation. In Brazilian society, miscegenation served to dissolve, that is to say, to bring together social groups, maintaining original differences based on social level rather than on quality. Therefore, to best understand Brazilian race relations, the heritage and particularities of the institution in Brazil will be discussed in this dissertation.

Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit besteht darin, den Wert der nonverbalen Ausdrucksmittel für einen erfolgreichen Kommunikationsverlauf zu verdeutlichen und aufzuzeigen, welche Rolle Geschlecht und soziale Hierarchie in der nonverbalen Kommunikation spielen und in welchem Maße sie eine Interaktion beeinflussen können. Als Untersuchungsgegenstand fungiert das nonverbale Verhalten des ecuadorianischen Präsidenten Rafael Vicente Correa Delgado, wobei der Fokus auf den Faktoren Geschlecht und soziale Hierarchie und deren Ausdruck in der nonverbalen Kommunikation liegt. Die Durchführung der Untersuchung erfolgt anhand des medial inszenierten Abbildes von Rafael Correa, das ihn in einer diskursiven Beziehung darstellt, d.h. Aufzeichnungen politischer Debatten und Interviews, die auf internationaler Ebene stattgefunden haben. Bei der Auswahl des Untersuchungsgegenstandes wird Wert auf Verschiedenheit der Konstellationen der Interaktionspartner (Status und Geschlecht) gelegt, um einen Vergleich des nonverbalen Verhaltens zu ermöglichen. Es ergeben sich für die vorliegende Arbeit folgende Hauptfragen, die es mit Hilfe der Untersuchung zu beantworten gilt: Inwieweit spiegelt das nonverbale Verhalten des ecuadorianischen Präsidenten Rafael Correa in einer Interaktion seine soziale Hierarchie wider und weist geschlechtsspezifische Züge auf? Variiert je nach sozialer Hierarchie und Geschlecht seiner Interaktionspartner das nonverbale Verhalten des ecuadorianischen Präsidenten Rafael Correa in einer Interaktion? Im Rahmen dieser Fragestellung ergeben sich ferner folgende Nebenfragen: In welcher Beziehung steht das nonverbale Verhalten des ecuadorianischen Präsidenten Rafael Correa zum verbalen Verhalten? Harmonieren diese zwei Ebenen miteinander, ergänzen sie sich oder widersprechen sie sich? Inwieweit zeigt sich die kulturelle Prägung im nonverbalen Verhalten Rafael Correas? Die Auswertung des nonverbalen Verhaltens Rafael Correas in asymmetrischer und in symmetrischer Beziehung macht deutlich, dass sowohl das Geschlecht als auch die soziale Hierarchie der Interaktionspartner Einfluss auf den Charakter und den möglichen Verlauf einer Interaktion nehmen. Anhand des Vergleichs des nonverbalen Verhaltens Correas in verschiedenen Konstellationen wird deutlich, dass das nonverbale Verhalten des Präsidenten von der sozialen Hierarchie und dem Geschlecht seiner Interaktionspartner nicht abhängig ist und somit nicht variiert. Die verbale und nonverbale Ebene ergänzen sich und weisen keine Widersprüchlichkeit auf. Es sind nur wenige kulturspezifische Verhaltensweisen des Präsidenten zu beobachten.

The permanent coresidence of males within a troop is unusual but occurs in vervet monkeys. Several hypotheses have been projected to explain the coexistence of male vervets (predation risk, breeding season length) but these hypotheses fall short in explaining the multimale nature of vervet monkeys. In order to determine the explanation for coresiding males, I collected male behavioural data from two troops over the course of nine months. My dataset was divided into two categories, male-male interactions and female-male interactions. The male-male data indicate that breeding season is the most active time for migration, aggressions and wounds. Coalitions were described for the first time, and affiliative interactions between males highlighted coping tactics of males in regards to their coexistence. The female-male data indicate there was little indication for distinct male or female choice for mating. Specifically, olfactory information appears to lower successful copulations of males, and female resistance also decreased successful copulations. Grooming was not a commodity traded for mating access. Male dominance was not correlated with mating success, and females seem to express their preference for sexual partners. The large cohort of males of my troops appears to alter behaviours observed at other sites. The maintenance of male-female associations after breeding season suggests that males may be preparing for next breeding season, and males may co-reside for breeding purposes. / xiii, 123 leaves : ill. maps ; 29 cm

Macrobrachium australiense is a common freshwater prawn found throughout most of eastern and inland Australia. Debate has been ongoing on the systematics of this species due to high morphological variation: past studies have relied on external morphology assessments to describe genetic relationships between populations. An individual's morphological phenotype results however, from an interplay of genetic factors, environmental, and interactions between genes and the environment. The current study examined the strength of genetic constraint on morphological traits in this species. Examination of over 1000 M. australiense museum specimens collected from across the species' extensive natural range, documented high phenotypic variation with no regional pattern of variation. Within regions, 88% of variation in morphological traits in mature males and juveniles was present between local rivers. Therefore, morphological variation is not structured at the regional level. If there is a strong genetic base to morphological variation then populations in a single river system must be evolving essentially in isolation. More intensive sampling within a single river system demonstrated high morphological variation in 600 M. australiense individuals from 18 populations within a geographically connected system. Populations separated by as little as 1km showed significant morphological differences in 50% of mature male traits. If morphological variation is primarily genetically based, then populations within a river system were evolving independently at a very fine spatial scale. This hypothesis was tested by breeding morphologically divergent populations of M. australiense in a controlled environment to isolate genetic influences on morphological variation. Low heritability for morphological traits in five divergent populations raised under identical environments established that there is no strict genetic control on morphological variation in these M. australiense populations. Morphologically homogenous offspring resulted from wild parents that had exhibited significant differences at 73% of traits examined. Therefore, the fundamental assumption that morphological variation in M. australiense is dictated by strict genetic control is not supported in these representative populations. Moreover, significant variation in 41% of morphological traits was produced by raising a single population at different environmental temperatures (28oC and 22 oC). A single homogenous stock of M. australiense should not produce morphologically divergent offspring if genetic factors are the major influence of phenotypic expression. Crossing of pure line divergent stocks resulted in hybrid offspring with significant differences in 50% of female morphological traits, whereas male offspring varied for only 31% of morphological traits. This result suggests that female morphological expression is affected more strongly by genetic factors than male offspring in this trial. The growth and maturation of external morphological traits during development in M. australiense is under limited genetic constraint, especially in the later phases of growth. Only 17% of traits varied between juvenile stocks in the last three months of development when individuals were exposed to identical environmental conditions. Maturation size was homogenous, except for females in the absence of maturing males in divergent stocks exposed to identical environmental conditions. Females were much larger in size and shape of morphological traits in the absence of mature males in the population. Thus environmental factors strongly influence phenotypic expression of external morphology in M. australiense. Past problems with the taxonomy of this species are therefore understandable as many important traits used in systematics appear to be under limited genetic control. Past evolutionary studies based on morphological diversity in this species therefore may be unreliable as the traits used to identify divergent forms may not provide a true reflection of genetic divergence.

Face aux mutations contemporaines des mondes ruraux, la compréhension de la capacité des sociétés rurales à se reproduire et à organiser leurs territoires est un enjeu crucial. Cette thèse d’ethnologie est intégrée aux travaux de recherche pluridisciplinaires d’un laboratoire d’écologie du paysage. Elle vise à mieux comprendre les dynamiques conjointes des sociétés et des territoires dans le Bas-Comminges, en Haute-Garonne. Les sociétés bas-commingeoises présentent des capacités à assimiler le changement et sont marquées par un système social spécifique, dit « à maison », qui a la particularité d’entraîner une stabilité des patrimoines fonciers. L’étude ethnographique de la transmission, des limites et de la composition des patrimoines depuis le début du 19ème siècle et l’intégration des données collectées dans un Système d’Information Géographique vont révéler le lien entre une organisation sociale et son territoire. Les résultats s’articulent en trois points. (1) Les patrimoines sont effectivement stables au cours des deux derniers siècles. La société étudiée présente une forte hiérarchie sociale. Le statut social est fondé sur la richesse foncière et le maintien de son patrimoine de génération en génération. (2) On constate que, pour les Bas-Commingeois, il est nécessaire de détenir mais aussi de cultiver la terre pour faire se perpétuer son statut. Leur objectif est de respecter un principe d’autonomie des propriétés et une diversité des pratiques et de l’occupation du sol. (3) Le maintien de sa place au sein de la hiérarchie passe aussi par une implication des acteurs locaux au sein des institutions du village. Le respect de ces principes a entraîné une permanence de l’organisation du territoire et une adaptation du système aux mutations du monde rural. Cette étude répond à des questions posées sur les dynamiques des espaces agricoles et forestiers et apporte une contribution dans la compréhension des capacités des mondes ruraux à se perpétuer. / Facing the contemporary changes of the rural worlds, the comprehension of the ability of the rural societies to reproduce and organize their territories is a crucial stake. This PhD in Ethnology is integrated into the pluri-disciplinary researches of a landscape ecology laboratory. The aims of the study are to understand the dynamics between societies and territories in rural societies of the Bas-Comminges, in Haute-Garonne (France). Those societies have the capacities to assimilate changes and are marked by the presence of a specific social system, known as “the house-centered system”, which characteristic is to involve the stability of the real estate. The ethnographic study of the inheritance, the limits and the composition of the real estate since the beginning of the 19th century and the integration of the data collected in a Geographical Information System will reveal the bond between a social organization and its territory. The results are articulated in three points. (1) The real estates are stable during the last 2 centuries. The studied society presents a strong social hierarchy. The social status is based on the land richness and its maintenance from generation to generation. (2) It is noted that it is necessary for the Bas-Commingeois to hold but also to cultivate the land to remain its statute. The objective of the owners is to respect a principle of autonomy of the properties and a diversity of the practices and cover of the land. (3) The maintenance of the status within the hierarchy also passes by an involvement of the Bas-Commingeois within the village’s institutions. The respect of these principles induces the permanence of the territory and an adaptation of the system to the changes of the rural world. This study answers questions about the dynamics of agricultural and forest spaces and contributes to a better understanding of the capacities of the rural worlds to survive.

This bachelor’s thesis is an effort to understand how black women in Sweden experience 'race' and racism in everyday life. The theoretical framework includes a postcolonial theory from Sara Ahmed, with the concept of 'race' as a key element. Additional to that, Judith Butler’s gender performativity theory contributes to a broader understanding of the informants’ situation. The material consisting of interviews with four young black women implies that everyday racism is present in Swedish society to that extent that 'race' is a major aspect of these women’s life. In everyday encounters with the white majority of the society, they often feel different, marginalized, objectified and exotified. Furthermore, the informants experience that their skin color and phenotypic markers are a magnet for white people’s fetish and fantasies, but also an obstacle to obtain legitimacy in interactions with them. To those reasons, the informants are considering migrating to a country where black people are forming a larger minority in society than it is the case in Sweden. That opens up the possibility to interact with more black people who have similar experiences of being exposed to everyday racism.

In this study the experiences, perceptions and challenges of being in a mixed-race relationship (M-R) were explored against the backdrop of previous South African pieces of legislation meant to keep the various race groups apart. The study was located within a conceptual framework predominantly informed by a constructivist approach, as well as some tenets from the social constructionist approach. This study focused only on M-R relationships consisting of black and white partners. The couples were recruited through the use of a snowball sampling method. In-depth interviews were used as the primary tool for collecting data. All participants were interviewed by the researcher either at their own homes or in the researcher's office. The collected information was later transcribed and qualitatively analysed. The results of the study indicate that individuals found their involvement in M-R relationships to be a positive experience, and thus resulting in a positive attitude change and a sense of personal growth. M-R couples and their extended families experienced cognitive dissonance which required them to discard their previously internalised racial stereotypes, using strategies such as cognitive differentiation, re-categorization and de-categorization, allowing shifts toward non-racial socially constructed categories. Most of the challenges of being in M-R relationships were experienced on interpersonal and inter-group levels. The losses, disadvantages, challenges, concerns and pains experienced by M-R couples were mainly related to family and social disapproval of the relationship as well as efforts to discourage race mixing. The study concludes that the non-conformist nature of M-R relationships requires from the participants a high level of self-differentiation and individuation that challenges racial norms and cultural collectivism. Albeit being a personal or private matter, a M-R relationship carries the burden of easily being the subject of public discourse. It is in this sense that M-R relationships cannot be understood without taking the socio-political context within which they occur into consideration. / Psychology / D.Phil. (Psychology)

L’objectif de ce mémoire est d’examiner l’accès à l’eau d’un point de vue non pas technologique mais social. Toute société humaine a eu à régler la question de l’accès à l’eau. C’est particulièrement le cas des populations vivant sous un climat aride comme au Sahel, où cette ressource est rare. Le village d’étude est situé au nord du Burkina Faso, dans la région du Yatenga. J’examinerai d’abord la répartition temporelle et spatiale des groupes et des puits sur le territoire, puis la question de la régulation de l’accès à l’eau en tant qu’enjeu politique au sein des structures traditionnelles. Je montrerai qu’il permet tantôt de renforcer les hiérarchies sociales existantes, et tantôt de les dépasser. J’examinerai enfin l’accès à l’eau de différents groupes d’usagers : femmes, hommes, jeunes, vieux, agriculteurs, éleveurs. Je montrerai que leur condition d’accès est implicitement régulée, et limite les possibilités d’expansion économique de certains d’entre eux. Dans cette société en mutation, les usagers désavantagés peuvent développer des tactiques leur permettant de contourner ces contraintes. L’accès à l’eau est alors pris dans un jeu de stratégies antagonistes, celle de la reproduction sociale et celle du changement. / The purpose of this report is to examine access to water, not from a technological but from a social point of view. Any human society has had to cope with the issue of access to water. This is especially true for the people living under arid climates such as in Sahel, where water is a limiting resource. The village under study is located in the Yatenga region, north of Burkina Faso. I will first examine the space and time distribution of wells and of human groups in this territory, then I will question the regulation of access to water as a political issue within traditional structures. I will show that it contributes to sometimes strengthen and sometimes circumvent patterns of social hierarchy. Then I will study access to water in different social groups: women, men, younger and older people, elders, farmers, herders. I will show that their access to water is implicitly checked, thus limiting opportunities of economical improvement for some of them. In this developing society, disadvantaged users may develop tactics to circumvent these constraints. Thus access to water is taken between conflicting strategies, pertaining to social reproduction as opposed to social change.