The aim of this thesis is to investigate the impact and feasibility of implementing large scale energy storage systems for the purpose of energy shifting at grid connected solar parks in Namibia. The country, which receives a large amount of solar irradiance, is ideal for the construction of solar parks. However, as solar parks are an intermittent energy source, energy storage systems are becoming an increasingly attractive option in order to decrease losses and secure the supply of electricity. For this purpose, a model in Matlab was created to simulate different storage types. The input data was simulated with site-specific information for Windhoek in PVsyst and then evaluated in an economic analysis where electricity tariff pricing, battery investment costs and exchange rates were the main variables. This report is structured through starting with an introduction where the background of the Namibian electricity market and essential terms are presented. This is followed by a detailed description of the Matlab model construction and a literature review of battery types and storage systems. The simulation models and results are then evaluated both from an economical and technical perspective and the main findings are presented. Through this project, it was concluded that energy storage is not feasible today with current market conditions. Even with favorable electricity tariffs and Namibian exchange rates, storage technologies are currently too expensive today in order for it to be economically defensible. The forecast is however promising, where decreasing investment prices and an increased of R&D in the technology is expected. From the constructed model, it was however concluded that sodium-sulfur is by far the best option today. The reason for this is the low initial cost and relatively high round-trip efficiency of the technology. The model also proved the potential of increased electricity security from using energy shifting. With energy storage, the delivered energy from solar parks now coincide better with the demand since the intermittency is decreased. However, for future studies a detailed analysis of energy storage effects on the grid is recommended.

The aim with this project was to study the power output from a frameless bifacial photovoltaic (PV) system relative to a traditional monofacial PV system with a frame. A general overview of how the geographical conditions affects the energy utilization of different PV systems is investigated throughout the project. Also, the study examined if further comparisons and evaluations, between PV systems, can be better established. The two examined solar parks, installed under different conditions, are located in Uppsala and Enköping, Sweden. In order to fulfill the aim and compare the different PV systems, three cases were analyzed. To increase the credibility of a comparison between the two cities, a sensitivity analysis considering the weather condition was executed. In case one, the result indicates that a bifacial panel is 5.2% and 3.6% more advantageous than a traditional monofacial panel during summer and winter, respectively. In case two, the frameless, more tilted and elevated bifacial panel is 58% and 680% more advantageous than a traditional monofacial panel during summer and winter, respectively. Also, in case three, the frameless, more tilted and elevated bifacial panel is 19% and 76% more advantageous than a bifacial panel with frame during summer and winter, respectively. When installing a new solar park, it is important to consider the location’s specific features since these affects the energy yield of the PV system. Future installations, which are installed with the intention to evaluate certain properties, is suggested to be installed with more initially comparable conditions in mind.

When procuring a solar PV park in Sweden there are many stakeholders involved. As of today, the metric called performance ratio (PR) is often used to guarantee the park’s performance. Nonetheless, comprehending and evaluating PR can be challenging due to its inherent complexity. This study highlights favorable and unfavorable aspects of using PR as a performance metric in solar park procurements in Sweden. The study analyzes the correlation between PR, yield, and revenue, indicating a weak correlation between PR and yield. Findings show that lower values of PR often correspond to a higher yield, this suggests that PR is not a reliable metric for assessing the performance of a solar park. In addition, it may lead to negative implications for stakeholders involved in both procurement and operation of a solar park Relying solely on PR can potentially result in financial losses.  Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis was conducted with a focus on inverter loss and DC/AC ratio. Results illustrate that PR and inverter loss are strongly correlated for a park with a high DC/AC ratio, and they have a weaker correlation for a park with low a DC/AC ratio. This is due to increased inverter loss resulting from clipping losses in the system. The study suggests that a desirable DC/AC ratio of 1,15 maximizes yield and profit. In conclusion, while PR exhibits lower variation and can entail lower risk for Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) companies, it is not always a reliable metric for assessing park performance. The weak correlation between PR and yield, as well as revenue, has implications for developers and investors. The study suggests that a lower DC/AC ratio may reduce the risk for EPCs guaranteeing PR, but decisions based solely on PR may not guarantee the highest revenue for investors and developers. / När en solcellspark upphandlas är flera olika intressenter involverade. I dagsläget används ett prestandamått som kallas performance ratio (PR) för att garantera parkens prestanda. Däremot är PR ett svårt mått att förstå och förutse på grund av dess komplexitet. Den här studien belyser gynnsamma samt ogynnsamma aspekter av att använda PR som ett prestandamått i upphandlingar av solparker i Sverige. Studien analyserar sambandet mellan PR, yield (normaliserad produktion), normaliserad yield och intäkter. Studien visar på ett svagt samband mellan PR och yield. Resultaten visar att lägre värden av PR ofta korrelerar med högre yield, vilket antyder att PR inte är ett tillförlitligt mått för att bedöma en solparks prestanda. Dessutom kan det bli konsekvenser för intressenter som är involverade i både upphandling och drift av en solpark. Att enbart förlita sig på PR kan potentiellt leda till ekonomiska förluster. Vidare genomfördes en känslighetsanalys med fokus på växelriktarförluster och DC/AC förhållandet. Resultaten visar att PR och växelriktarförluster har en stark korrelation för en park med högt DC/AC-förhållande, medan de har en svagare korrelation för en park med lågt DC/AC-förhållande. Detta beror på ökade växelriktarförluster till följd av clipping loss i systemet. Studien föreslår att ett önskvärt DC/AC-förhållande på 1,15 maximerar yield och vinst. Sammanfattningsvis, normaliserad yield bedömdes inte vara ett bra alternativ för PR och yield i upphandlingar. Studien visar att medan PR uppvisar lägre variation och kan innebära lägre risk för EPC-företag, är det inte alltid ett tillförlitligt mått för att bedöma en parks prestanda. Det svaga sambandet mellan PR och yield, liksom intäkter, får konsekvenser för utvecklare och investerare. Studien föreslår att ett lägre DC/AC-förhållande kan minska risken för EPC-företag som garanterar PR, men beslut som enbart baseras på PR kan inte garantera högsta intäkter för investerare och utvecklare.

To meet the European Union’s target of climate neutrality by 2050 ambitious measures need to be taken. The electricity sector is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions globally, which makes it an important sector to decarbonize. For this to happen, fossil fuels must be replaced by renewable energy sources. A relatively new way of generating renewable electricity is through solar parks, which is a technology that has seen rapid growth in the last decade. A solar park consists of a large collection of photovoltaic modules which converts solar energy to electricity which is later transferred to the grid. However, numerous external factors, such as permit-processes, grid capacity, social acceptance and land availability, can hinder the deployment of solar parks.  The solar park market which was previously driven by small regional players is demonstrating a shift towards large multinational companies. Companies may therefore need to enter new, foreign markets to remain competitive. A country which might be attractive to enter is Germany due to their ambitious targets for solar energy. Thus, the objective of this thesis is to investigate the external environment of the solar park market in the German region Lower Saxony, and its implications on foreign companies’ entry strategies. Two highly controlled entry modes are considered: entering through a joint venture, i.e. with a partner, or with a wholly owned subsidiary. The examined conditions are: regulatory, technical, social, geographical, and economic. A literature study was conducted to frame the different conditions and the empirical evidence was collected mainly from grey literature but the information was also supplemented by interviews with specialists within the area. By analyzing the external conditions, a number of drivers and barriers for establishing solar parks in the region are identified and discussed. Further, the possibilities for a foreign solar park company to enter the market are discussed based on the identified drivers and barriers.  One of the main drivers is the promising potential, due to the region’s ambitious targets for solar parks, an expected increase in electrification as well as the halted use of nuclear and current phase out of coal. This will open a large share of the electricity production that needs to be covered, which gives solar parks the opportunity to gain large market shares. Additional drivers are the high public acceptance and the high electricity price, which enables a faster payback time on investment. One of the most significant barriers in the region is the lack of clear permit processes for establishing solar parks. Permit processes are handled on a local level, which means that they can differ between communities and be rather lengthy due to lack of resources in the communities. Another key barrier is the difficulties of accessing attractive land in Lower Saxony considering the importance of the agriculture sector resulting in competition of land. These barriers make Lower Saxony a rather uncertain market. However, an increasing amount of land is being released for solar park developments and the permit processes are anticipated to be clearer in the near future.  The promising potential of the solar park market speaks in favor of entering the market with a wholly owned subsidiary due to the possibilities for a high return. The market uncertainties, such as unclear permit processes, uncertainties within the policies for solar parks, and the difficulties of accessing suitable land areas, are also in favor of entering with a wholly owned subsidiary due to the strategy’s flexibility. However, it has been found that having local connections is important since there are many processes with high local involvement, e.g., in the permit processes and land acquisition. This indicates that entering through a joint venture with a local partner might be more suitable for a foreign company when entering the solar park market in Lower Saxony. Entering through a joint venture is also a faster way to enter a rapidly growing market, which enables the company to become an early player and obtain larger market shares.