Espécies exóticas são consideradas a segunda maior ameaça ao meio ambiente, sendo um risco às espécies nativas devido à predação, competição, hibridação e transmissão de patógenos. Callithrix jacchus e Callithrix penicillata são espécies exóticas amplamente difundidas no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. No presente estudo, dados comportamentais e ecológicos foram amostrados entre Setembro de 2008 e Agosto de 2009 usando-se o método animal focal com amostragem instantânea, acompanhando sete grupos mistos de Callithrix spp. no arboreto do Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro (JBRJ). A densidade dos saguis foi estimada em cerca de 130 indivíduos por Km2. Na dieta, foram identificadas 51 espécies arbóreas fontes de exsudatos e 39 espécies fontes de frutos, folhas, flores e néctar. Os saguis se alimentaram também de invertebrados, pequenos vertebrados, e alimentos direta ou indiretamente fornecidos por visitantes do JBRJ. O consumo de exsudatos foi maior na estação mais seca, e de frutos e insetos na estação mais chuvosa. Os saguis utilizaram mais os estratos verticais intermediários e sub-bosque nas suas atividades diárias, e áreas protegidas por epífitas no dossel de 30 espécies diferentes de árvores como locais de dormida. Os saguis apresentaram relações interespecíficas harmônicas, neutras e desarmônicas com diversas espécies de aves e mamíferos. A dispersão de sementes de árvores exóticas e o uso exagerado de espécimes vegetais para gomivoria pelos saguis podem afetar a integridade da coleção do JBRJ. A alta densidade de saguis e predação de espécies da fauna local podem afetar o equilíbrio da comunidade faunística. Com base nas observações in situ, as espécies alóctones C. jacchus e C. penicillata causam danos e necessitam de manejo, que deve ser estudado e implementado para o controle criterioso de suas populações. / Exotic species are considered the second biggest threat to the environment, representing a risk to native species due to predation, competition, hybridization and disease transmission. Callithrix jacchus and C. penicillata are exotic species widely spread out in the Rio de Janeiro State. For this study, behavioural and ecological data were sampled between September 2008 and August 2009 through the use of focal animal method with instantaneous sampling, following seven mixed groups of Callithrix spp. in the Arboretum of Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden (JBRJ), Rio de Janeiro. The marmoset density was estimated on 130 individuals per km2. We identified 51 tree species as exudate sources, 39 species as sources of fruits, leaves, flowers and nectar. The marmosets can also eat invertebrates, small vertebrates, and food offered by visitors of JBRJ. The consumption of exudates was concentrated in the dry season, and fruit and insects in the rainy season. The marmosets used most intermediate strata and understory in their daily activities, and areas protected by epiphytes in the canopy of 30 different species of trees as sleeping sites. The marmosets showed interspecific relationships as harmonic, neutral and disharmonious with several species of birds and mammals. The diffusion of exotic tree seeds and the overuse of plant specimens for gummivory of marmosets can affect the integrity of the JBRJ collection. The high density of marmosets and predation of native fauna can affect the integrity of the fauna. Considering the potential and observed damage caused by exotic species Callithrix jacchus and C. penicillata, management measures should be studied and implemented to control their populations.

Espécies exóticas são consideradas a segunda maior ameaça ao meio ambiente, sendo um risco às espécies nativas devido à predação, competição, hibridação e transmissão de patógenos. Callithrix jacchus e Callithrix penicillata são espécies exóticas amplamente difundidas no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. No presente estudo, dados comportamentais e ecológicos foram amostrados entre Setembro de 2008 e Agosto de 2009 usando-se o método animal focal com amostragem instantânea, acompanhando sete grupos mistos de Callithrix spp. no arboreto do Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro (JBRJ). A densidade dos saguis foi estimada em cerca de 130 indivíduos por Km2. Na dieta, foram identificadas 51 espécies arbóreas fontes de exsudatos e 39 espécies fontes de frutos, folhas, flores e néctar. Os saguis se alimentaram também de invertebrados, pequenos vertebrados, e alimentos direta ou indiretamente fornecidos por visitantes do JBRJ. O consumo de exsudatos foi maior na estação mais seca, e de frutos e insetos na estação mais chuvosa. Os saguis utilizaram mais os estratos verticais intermediários e sub-bosque nas suas atividades diárias, e áreas protegidas por epífitas no dossel de 30 espécies diferentes de árvores como locais de dormida. Os saguis apresentaram relações interespecíficas harmônicas, neutras e desarmônicas com diversas espécies de aves e mamíferos. A dispersão de sementes de árvores exóticas e o uso exagerado de espécimes vegetais para gomivoria pelos saguis podem afetar a integridade da coleção do JBRJ. A alta densidade de saguis e predação de espécies da fauna local podem afetar o equilíbrio da comunidade faunística. Com base nas observações in situ, as espécies alóctones C. jacchus e C. penicillata causam danos e necessitam de manejo, que deve ser estudado e implementado para o controle criterioso de suas populações. / Exotic species are considered the second biggest threat to the environment, representing a risk to native species due to predation, competition, hybridization and disease transmission. Callithrix jacchus and C. penicillata are exotic species widely spread out in the Rio de Janeiro State. For this study, behavioural and ecological data were sampled between September 2008 and August 2009 through the use of focal animal method with instantaneous sampling, following seven mixed groups of Callithrix spp. in the Arboretum of Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden (JBRJ), Rio de Janeiro. The marmoset density was estimated on 130 individuals per km2. We identified 51 tree species as exudate sources, 39 species as sources of fruits, leaves, flowers and nectar. The marmosets can also eat invertebrates, small vertebrates, and food offered by visitors of JBRJ. The consumption of exudates was concentrated in the dry season, and fruit and insects in the rainy season. The marmosets used most intermediate strata and understory in their daily activities, and areas protected by epiphytes in the canopy of 30 different species of trees as sleeping sites. The marmosets showed interspecific relationships as harmonic, neutral and disharmonious with several species of birds and mammals. The diffusion of exotic tree seeds and the overuse of plant specimens for gummivory of marmosets can affect the integrity of the JBRJ collection. The high density of marmosets and predation of native fauna can affect the integrity of the fauna. Considering the potential and observed damage caused by exotic species Callithrix jacchus and C. penicillata, management measures should be studied and implemented to control their populations.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A área de vida pode ser definida como o espaço físico necessário para um animal desempenhar as atividades essenciais para sua sobrevivência, desenvolvimento e reprodução. O conhecimento sobre área de vida é essencial para a compreensão dos processos que regem o uso do espaço e a organização social em populações animais. Neste estudo, investigamos aspectos das áreas de vida do lagarto saxícola, endêmico da Caatinga, Tropidurus semitaeniatus, avaliando possíveis variações intersexuais, ontogenéticas e sazonais nos tamanhos das áreas de vida, bem como elementos da organização social da espécie. A área de estudo consistiu em uma área típica de Caatinga stricto sensu, localizada no município de Pentecoste - Ceará. Realizamos coletas em dois afloramentos rochosos, nos quais demarcamos pontos de referência a cada cinco metros. Coletamos os lagartos residentes nestes afloramentos, registrando, para cada indivíduo, o sexo e o tamanho rostro-cloacal (mm), e posteriormente, identificando-o com marcação única. Vistoriamos cada afloramento durante 20 dias em cada estação (chuvosa e seca), respectivamente em junho e dezembro de 2011, realizando recapturas visuais e coletando registros de posições espaciais de cada indivíduo. Estimamos as áreas de vida pelo método do Polígono Convexo Mínimo, para os indivíduos recapturados pelo menos seis vezes. Obtivemos 56 áreas de vida, das quais 10 foram de machos, 20 de fêmeas e 26 de jovens. Não existiu relação entre os tamanhos das áreas de vida e os comprimentos rostro-cloacais dos indivíduos. Não houve diferenças sexuais, ontogenéticas ou sazonais nos tamanhos das áreas de vida. Contudo, o espaçamento entre as áreas de vida foi menor durante a estação chuvosa e a maioria das sobreposições entre áreas de vida também ocorreu neste período. Ao todo, registramos 81 sobreposições de áreas de vida, sendo estas mais frequentes entre fêmeas e jovens e menos frequentes entre pares de machos. A proporção da área de vida total sobreposta com outro indivíduo foi maior entre pares de fêmeas e menor entre pares de machos. Os machos estiveram associados em média com 1,5 fêmeas, possuindo de zero a sete áreas de vida de fêmeas sobrepostas com suas áreas de vida. O número de áreas de vida de fêmeas sobrepostas às áreas de vida de machos esteve positivamente associado ao tamanho dos machos. Por outro lado, não houve associação entre o número de áreas de vida de fêmeas sobrepostas às áreas de vida de machos e os tamanhos das áreas de vida dos machos correspondentes. Em suma, à luz do conhecimento acumulado sobre a história natural do organismo de estudo, acreditamos que sua extrema especificidade por ambientes rochosos e a disponibilidade limitada de habitats adequados à ocupação constituem fatores preponderantes na determinação dos padrões singulares de uso do espaço e organização social em T. semitaeniatus. / The home range may be defined as the physical space required for an animal to perform the essential activities for its survival, development and reproduction. The knowledge on home range is essential to understanding the processes that govern the use of space and the social organization in animal populations. Herein, we investigated home range aspects of the saxicolous lizard, endemic from Caatinga, Tropidurus semitaeniatus, evaluating possible intersexual, ontogenetic and seasonal variations in home range size, as well as elements of the social organization of the species. The study area was a typical Caatinga stricto sensu area, located in Pentecoste municipality - Ceará. We performed sampling at two rocky outcrops, where we defined reference marks each five meters. We collect the lizards living in these outcrops, recording for each individual, the sex and snout-vent length (mm), and subsequently, identifying it with unique marking code. We scanned each outcrop for 20 days in each season (rainy and dry), respectively on June and December 2011, performing visual recaptures and collecting records of spatial positions of each individual. We estimated the home range size by Minimum Polygon Convex method, for individuals recaptured at least six times. We obtained 56 home range areas, of which 10 males, 20 females and 26 juveniles. There was no relationship between home range size and snout-vent length of individuals. There were no sexual, ontogenetic or seasonal differences in home range size. However, the spacing between home range areas was lowest during the rainy season and the most of the home range overlaps also occurred in this period. Overall, we recorded 81 home range overlaps, which were more frequent between females and juveniles and less frequent among pairs of males. The proportion of the total home range overlapped with another individual was highest among pairs of females and lowest among pairs of males. Males were associated on average with 1.5 females, having from zero to seven females home range overlapped with their own home ranges. The number of female home ranges overlapped with male ones was positively associated with the body size of males. Moreover, there was no association between the number of female home ranges overlapped with male ones and the home range size of the corresponding males. In conclusion, in the light of accumulated knowledge about the natural history of the studied organism, we believe that their extreme specificity to the rocky environments and restricted availability of suitable habitats for its occupation are important factors in determining patterns of use of space and social organization in T. semitaeniatus

Alongside the destruction of habitat, the impact of invasive alien species (IAS) is considered as one of the most important threats to global biodiversity. Therefore, international directives as well as national legislation call for measures to prevent the further spread of already established IAS as well as to limit their negative effects on native flora and fauna. This study deals with one of these non-native species – the American mink (Neovison vison). In order to get information about ecology and behaviour of this semiaquatic carnivore, a small population in a north German fishpond area, where mink has been spreading since the 1970s, was investigated. During the years 2003 to 2006 data about annual and circadian activity patterns, space use, territorial system as well as feeding habits and their variations during different seasons were collected. For this purpose, altogether 14 individuals (nine males, five females) were monitored using radio-telemetry. Based on the results, the potential impact of American mink on indigenous species was discussed and implications for mink control and management were deduced. American mink are difficult to radio tag. The small difference between their head and neck circumferences mean that the radio collars must be worn tightly to prevent loss. A methodological evaluation of conventional collar transmitters revealed that in six out of eight cases serious skin injuries on the necks were the consequences. Therefore, all radio collars were removed and radio transmitters were surgically implanted in the peritoneal cavity of mink by veterinarians. One male bit open the sutures and died after emergency surgery, but in 13 cases implantation did not affect survival or reproduction of the mink. With reference to animal welfare, intraperitoneal implantation of radio transmitters (in combination with observation and quarantine for several days after operation) instead of external radio collars were recommended for long term telemetry studies of American mink. Analyses of annual activity patterns revealed significant differences in seasonal activity rates. Both sexes reduced their average activity rates in cold winter months (October to February) to about 23 %. This energy-saving strategy is possible because of sufficient food availability, especially of fish, at this time. In March, male as well as female mink considerably increased their activity to almost 40 % due to the mating season. In summer months, during the pup-raising period (May to August), female activity continued to be high (between 40 and 50 %). However, male mink which are not involved in rearing the young, were less active (about 30 %) until July. But in August and September, the time of juvenile dispersal followed by changes in the territorial system and intraspecific aggression, activity rates of males increased again up to 43 %. Circadian activity rhythms differed markedly between sexes. All investigated females exhibited a perennial diurnal pattern. Three of five investigated male mink showed typical nocturnal activity throughout the year. Two males displayed arrhythmic behaviour; they did not prefer any time of the day for activity. On the one hand, gender differences in annual as well as circadian activity patterns of American mink reflect the diversity in ecological constraints, primarily the investment into reproduction. On the other hand, the different temporal strategies of sexes may have the potential to reduce intraspecific, especially intersexual competition. Investigating territorial systems and space use of mink, in comparison to other European studies, relatively large home ranges combined with a quite low population density were observed. In summer months male mink used on average 15.4 km length of waterway and female mink used on average 9.3 km length of waterway. In accordance with the trend of activity rates, male and female mink reduced their large summer home ranges by more than half during the cold winter period. But all-season male mink used significantly larger areas than female mink. High intersexual overlapping rates of home ranges and low levels of intrasexual overlapping of neighbouring home ranges confirm intrasexual territoriality of American mink. Probably, the low population density (0.6-0.7 individuals/km2) allows such high variations in seasonal and sexual home range size. During the mating season males considerably enlarged their home ranges and roamed nearly through the entire study area in search of receptive females. The shifting of stable temporary home ranges observed within one season or between the same seasons of consecutive years demonstrates the highly dynamic nature of spatial behaviour among American mink. The recorded characteristic features of spatial and temporal behaviour should be considered when planning monitoring- and management measures of this invasive carnivore. For instance, the reduced home ranges and activity rates during winter months should be taken into account in mink trapping projects. Analyses of more than 2500 scatsamples of radio tracked mink show that investigated animals principally prey on fish, small mammals and birds (eggs inclusive). There were significant seasonal variations of diet composition. In spring, the three categories of prey - fish, mammals and birds (eggs inclusive) - were hunted in similar amounts. During summer, birds and their eggs made up the main part of the diet followed by mammals. In autumn, the proportion of birds in the mink diet decreased, whereas fish gained in importance. This trend continued during the winter period, when mink preyed almost exclusively on fish. Throughout the entire year amphibians, crustaceans, insects, molluscs and reptiles were found only occasionally in scatsamples. Among birds, the mink preyed mainly on the Eurasian Coot (Fulica atra) followed by the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Mammalian prey was clearly dominated by the water vole (Arvicola terrestris) and among fish, mink hunted especially perch (Perca fluviatilis), roach (Rutilus rutilus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). Results clearly demonstrate that mink is an opportunistic predator, which hunts its prey according to availability and vulnerability, respectively. Despite the high portions of fish in the autumn and winter diet, the economic damage to fishery caused by mink seems to be low. Perch and roach were preyed on in higher frequencies than the carp which is economically relevant. However, high predation on birds and their eggs during the breeding season indicates a potential negative impact of mink on waterfowl. To summarise, it can be noted that characteristic features of the anthropogenically influenced study area affect feeding habits, activity patterns, space use and density of local mink population. In this regard the management of fishponds, which influences seasonal availability of habitat- and food resources for mink, plays an important role. American mink is regarded as “invasive”, because a negative impact on native species has been proved by several European studies. Consequently, this study recommends management with a focus on effective monitoring and, if necessary, control or exclusion measures adapted to the specific local requirements. Furthermore, to prevent additional introductions into the wild, the still existing farms have to be protected against outbreaks and liberations. In the long term, a general ban on the trade and keeping of American mink would be desirable.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34 / Der Einfluss invasiver, gebietsfremder Arten wird neben der Habitatzerstörung als eine der größten Gefährdungen der Biodiversität weltweit angesehen. Sowohl internationale Umweltvereinbarungen als auch die nationale Gesetzgebung fordern daher Maßnahmen, die eine weitere Ausbreitung bereits etablierter invasiver Neozoen verhindern und deren negative Einflüsse minimieren. Die vorliegende Studie befasst sich mit einer dieser Neozoen - dem Amerikanischen Nerz bzw. Mink (Neovison vison). Um Erkenntnisse zu Ökologie und Verhalten des semiaquatischen Musteliden in Deutschland zu gewinnen, wurden Daten zu tages- und jahreszeitlichen Aktivitätsmustern, zu Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem sowie zur Nahrungswahl und den jahreszeitlichen Unterschieden im Beutespektrum der Art erhoben. Dafür konnten in den Jahren 2003 bis 2006 in einem Fischteich-Gebiet in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, wo sich Minke bereits seit den 1970er Jahren etabliert haben, insgesamt 14 Individuen (neun Männchen, fünf Weibchen) radiotelemetrisch überwacht werden. Anhand der Ergebnisse wird einerseits der potentielle Einfluss des gebietsfremden Raubsäugers auf einheimische Arten abgeschätzt und diskutiert. Andererseits werden die Ergebnisse herangezogen, um effektive Monitoring- und Managementmaßnahmen abzuleiten. Eine methodische Evaluation von Halsbandsendern zeigte, dass in sechs von acht Fällen die getesteten Halsbänder, die aufgrund des sehr ähnlichen Hals-Kopf-Umfanges der Individuen relativ eng angelegt werden müssen, Hautverletzungen verursachten. Infolgedessen wurden die Halsbandsender gegen durch Tierärzte operativ in die Bauchhöhle eingesetzte Implantationssender ausgetauscht. Auch bei allen nachfolgend gefangenen Tieren wurden die Sender implantiert. Bei insgesamt 14 durchgeführten Erstimplantationen beeinflussten mit Ausnahme eines Falles (Tod durch Aufbeißen der Naht) die Implantate weder das Überleben, noch die Reproduktion der Minke. Daher ist v.a. in Hinblick auf Tierschutzaspekte die Senderimplantation (in Kombination mit einer Mehrtages-Quarantäne) anstatt der Verwendung von externen Halsbandsendern zu empfehlen. Die Analyse der circannuellen Aktivitätsmuster ergab signifikante Unterschiede der saisonalen Aktivitätsraten. Während der kalten Wintermonate (Oktober bis Februar) zeigten beide Geschlechter mit durchschnittlich etwa 23 % eine vergleichsweise geringe Aktivität. Diese energiesparende Verhaltensweise war möglich, da auch im Winter ein ausreichend hohes Nahrungsangebot, vor allem an Fisch, vorhanden war. Im März kam es sowohl bei den Männchen als auch bei den Weibchen zu einem durch die Paarungszeit verursachten, beträchtlichen Anstieg der mittleren Aktivitätsraten auf fast 40 %. In den Sommermonaten (Mai bis August) waren die weiblichen Tiere, durch die Anforderungen der Jungenaufzucht bedingt, anhaltend häufig aktiv (zwischen 40 und 50 %). Die Aktivitätsraten der nicht an der Jungenaufzucht beteiligten Männchen dagegen nahmen im April wieder ab, um bis zum Juli auf einem vergleichsweise geringen Niveau von etwa 30 % zu bleiben. Sie stiegen jedoch während der Monate August und September erneut auf etwa 43 % an. Zu dieser Zeit wandern gewöhnlich die Jungtiere ab und suchen sich ein eigenes Streifgebiet (= Aktionsraum), dadurch kommt es zu Änderungen im Territorialsystem und damit einhergehenden innerartlichen Auseinandersetzungen. Beide Geschlechter unterscheiden sich stark in ihren tageszeitlichen Aktivitätsrhythmen. Alle Weibchen waren ganzjährig tagaktiv. Von den fünf untersuchten Männchen zeigten drei typische Nachtaktivität im gesamten Jahresverlauf. Die beiden anderen männlichen Tiere verhielten sich in ihren Aktivitätsrhythmen indifferent, sie zeigten das ganze Jahr über keine Präferenzen für eine bestimmte Tageszeit. Die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede sowohl in den circannuellen als auch in den circadianen Aktivitätsmustern spiegeln zum einen die verschiedenen Anforderungen an die Geschlechter wieder, vor allem die Investitionen in die Fortpflanzung. Zum anderen können die geschlechtsspezifisch unterschiedlichen Zeitnutzungs-Strategien zu einer Minimierung der innerartlichen, vorzugsweise der intersexuellen Konkurrenz führen. Die Analyse der Telemetriedaten hinsichtlich Raumnutzung und Territorialsystem ergab im Vergleich zu anderen europäischen Studien relativ große individuelle Aktionsräume verbunden mit einer geringen Populationsdichte im Untersuchungsgebiet. So erstreckten sich die durchschnittlich genutzten Sommerstreifgebiete der Männchen auf 15,4 km und die der Weibchen auf 9,3 km Flusslauf bzw. Teichufer. Entsprechend dem Trend der saisonalen Aktivitätsmuster, reduzierten beide Geschlechter ihre großen Sommerstreifgebiete während der Winterhalbjahre um mehr als die Hälfte der Fläche. Allerdings nutzten die Männchen zu allen Jahreszeiten wesentlich größere Aktionsräume als die weiblichen Minke. Große Streifgebietsüberlappungen zwischen den Geschlechtern sowie verhältnismäßig niedrige Überlappungsraten der benachbarten Streifgebiete von Tieren des gleichen Geschlechts bestätigen die intrasexuelle Territorialität der Art. Die erheblichen Unterschiede der saisonalen und geschlechtsspezifischen Aktionsraumgrößen werden vermutlich durch die ermittelte, vergleichsweise geringe Populationsdichte (0,6-0,7 Individuen/km2) ermöglicht. Die ausgedehnte und sich fast über das gesamte Untersuchungsgebiet erstreckende Raumnutzung der Männchen während der Paarungszeit ist durch die Suche nach fortpflanzungsbereiten Weibchen bedingt. Die Raumnutzung der untersuchten Minke unterliegt einer hohen Dynamik, dies wird durch die häufige räumliche Verschiebung temporär stabiler Streifgebiete innerhalb einer Jahreszeit oder auch zwischen den gleichen Jahreszeiten aufeinanderfolgender Jahre verdeutlicht. All diese ermittelten charakteristischen Besonderheiten im Raum-Zeit-Verhalten der Art sollten bei der Entwicklung von Monitoring- und Managementkonzepten berücksichtigt werden. So müssen beispielsweise bei der Fallenjagd im Winter die zu dieser Zeit stark verkleinerten Streifgebiete und die reduzierten Aktivitätsraten Beachtung finden. Die Analyse der über 2500 Losungsproben telemetrierter Minke zeigte, dass sich die untersuchten Tiere hauptsächlich von Fisch, Kleinsäugern und Vögeln (inklusive deren Eiern) ernährten. Dabei traten allerdings signifikante saisonale Unterschiede in der Nahrungs-zusammensetzung auf. So wurden im Frühjahr die drei Beutekategorien Fisch, Kleinsäuger sowie Vögel und deren Eier in ähnlichen Anteilen erbeutet. Während des Sommers bildeten Vögel und Vogeleier die Hauptbeute, gefolgt von Kleinsäugern. Im Herbst verringerte sich der Vogel- und Kleinsäugeranteil im Beutespektrum zugunsten von Fisch. Dieser Trend setzte sich bis in den Winter fort; in dieser Jahreszeit ernährten sich die Minke fast ausschließlich von Fisch. Amphibien, Reptilien, Krebstiere, Insekten und Mollusken wurden im gesamten Jahresverlauf nur gelegentlich gefressen. Innerhalb der Gruppe der Vögel prädierten die Minke vor allem Blässhühner (Fulica atra), gefolgt von Stockenten (Anas platyrhynchos). Das Kleinsäuger-Beutespektrum wurde eindeutig von der Schermaus (Arvicola terrestris) dominiert und unter den Fischen erbeuteten die Minke vorzugsweise Flussbarsche (Perca fluviatilis), Plötzen (Rutilus rutilus) und Karpfen (Cyprinus carpio). Die Ergebnisse der Nahrungsanalyse bestätigen den Mink als einen opportunistischen Prädator, der seine Beutetiere je nach Verfügbarkeit bzw. dem erforderlichen Jagdaufwand nutzt. Trotz des hohen Fischanteils in der Herbst- und Winternahrung ist der durch den Mink verursachte ökonomische Schaden schätzungsweise relativ gering. Flussbarsch und Plötze wurden in höheren Frequenzanteilen erbeutet als der wirtschaftlich relevante Karpfen. Die starke Prädation von Wasservögeln und deren Eiern besonders in den Frühjahrs- und Sommermonaten weist allerdings auf einen potentiell negativen Einfluss des invasiven Raubsäugers auf diese Tiergruppe hin. Zusammenfassend lässt sich festhalten, dass die spezifischen Charakteristika des anthropogen geprägten Untersuchungsgebietes sowohl Nahrungsökologie und Aktivitätsmuster als auch Raumnutzung und Populationsdichte der lokalen Minkpopulation beeinflussen. Eine besondere Rolle hierbei spielt die Bewirtschaftung der Fischteiche, denn vor allem daraus resultiert für die Minke eine saisonal unterschiedliche Verfügbarkeit an Lebensraum und Nahrung. Negative Auswirkungen des Amerikanischen Nerzes auf die einheimische Tierwelt wurden in anderen europäischen Ländern belegt und rechtfertigen die Einstufung dieser Art als „invasiv“. Demzufolge wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit ein Management empfohlen, bei dem der Focus auf einem effektiven Monitoring und gegebenenfalls auf zweckmäßigen, an die lokalen Bedingungen angepassten Fang- oder Abwehrmaßnahmen liegt. Zudem sollten, um einer weiteren Ausbringung in das Freiland vorzubeugen, die wenigen noch existierenden Minkfarmen besser gegen Ausbrüche bzw. Freilassungsaktionen gesichert werden. Langfristig ist ein generelles Besitz- und Vermarktungsverbot für die Art wünschenswert.:1 Summary 1 2 Zusammenfassung 4 3 General Introduction 8 4 Study Area and Methods 12 5 Radio tagging American mink (Mustela vison) – experience with collar- and intraperitoneal implanted transmitters 14 6 Gender differences in activity patterns of American mink Neovison vison in Germany 15 7 Dynamics in space use of American mink (Neovison vison) in a fishpond area in Northern Germany 16 8 Feeding habits of invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in northern Germany—potential implications for fishery and waterfowl 17 9 Concluding Discussion 18 9.1 Activity patterns, Space use and Feeding habits as well as the potential ecological and economic Impact 18 9.2 Prevention and Management 22 10 References 27 Acknowledgement 34

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À mesure que les performances intrinsèques des bâtiments s’améliorent, les usages énergétiques non réglementés, que nous associons à une notion d’intensité énergétique des usages, prennent de plus en plus d’importance dans le bilan des consommations des bâtiments. De plus, les bâtiments performants font apparaître des problématiques au niveau de l’exploitation des installations. Ces constats nous permettent d’affirmer qu’il est aujourd’hui important de proposer un cadre pour le suivi et l’optimisation de la sobriété énergétique des usages et l’exploitation performante pour la maîtrise des consommations énergétiques réelles des bâtiments. Cette thèse propose tout d’abord de développer des modèles polynomiaux de prédiction de la consommation énergétique tous usages en fonction des facteurs caractérisant l’intensité d’usage, la qualité d’usage et la qualité d’exploitation. Pour cela, nous utilisons le logiciel EnergyPlus afin de réaliser des simulations énergétiques dynamiques (SED) sur des valeurs de paramètres définis par la méthode des plans d’expérience D-optimaux. Le modèle polynomial créé permet alors d’effectuer, avec un faible temps de calcul, une propagation des incertitudes sur les consommations d’énergie calculées. Pour ce faire, nous utilisons les données mesurées en exploitation dans le cadre de la mesure et de la vérification de la performance énergétique, associées à une incertitude concernant leur valeur. Nous pouvons alors déterminer l’incertitude globale sur les consommations énergétiques et identifier les pistes pour la réduire, permettant ainsi un meilleur suivi et encadrement de la consommation énergétique réelle. / Since building envelope and MEP systems characteristics regularly improve, the weight of non-regulatory energy end-uses increases. These energy end-uses are typically associated with tenants or owners’ activities. In addition, high performance buildings show new issues related to HVAC systems operations. Therefore, it is important to evaluate and improve non-regulatory energy end-uses energy as well as HVAC systems operations efficiencies. We have developed polynomial energy models that can predict energy consumption as a function of building’s activities characteristics and HVAC systems operations factors. We used EnergyPlus software in order to build reliable energy models along with the D-optimum design of experiments method (DOE). Then, we used measurement and verification (M&V) data, associated with probability functions, to determine the associated uncertainty of the calculated energy consumption. Finally, we combine the latter with the polynomial modeling error to calculate the energy consumption global uncertainty, with the goal to identify strategies to reduce it.

Species distribution maps can provide important information to focus conservation efforts and enable spatial management of human activities. Two sympatric marine predators, grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), have overlapping ranges but contrasting population dynamics around the UK; whilst grey seals have generally increased, harbour seals have shown significant regional declines. A robust analytical methodology was developed to produce maps of grey and harbour seal usage estimates with corresponding uncertainty, and scales of spatial partitioning between the species were found. Throughout their range, both grey and harbour seals spend the majority of their time within 50 km of the coast. The scalability of the analytical approach was enhanced and environmental information to enable spatial predictions was included. The resultant maps have been applied to inform consent and licensing of marine renewable developments of wind farms and tidal turbines. For harbour seals around Orkney, northern Scotland, distance from haul out, proportion of sand in seabed sediment, and annual mean power were important predictors of space-use. Utilising seal usage maps, a framework was produced to allow shipping noise, an important marine anthropogenic stressor, to be explicitly incorporated into spatial planning. Potentially sensitive areas were identified through quantifying risk of exposure of shipping traffic to marine species. Individual noise exposure was predicted with associated uncertainty in an area with varying rates of co-occurrence. Across the UK, spatial overlap was highest within 50 km of the coast, close to seal haul outs. Areas identified with high risk of exposure included 11 Special Areas of Conservation (from a possible 25). Risk to harbour seal populations was highest, affecting half of all SACs associated with the species. For 20 of 28 animals in the acoustic exposure study, 95% CI for M-weighted cumulative Sound Exposure Levels had upper bounds above levels known to induce Temporary Threshold Shift. Predictions of broadband received sound pressure levels were underestimated on average by 0.7 dB re 1μPa (± 3.3). An analytical methodology was derived to allow ecological maps to be quantitatively compared. The Structural Similarity (SSIM) index was enhanced to incorporate uncertainty from underlying spatial models, and a software algorithm was developed to correct for internal edge effects so that loss of spatial information from the map comparison was limited. The application of the approach was demonstrated using a case study of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus, Linneaus 1758) in the Mediterranean Sea to identify areas where local-scale differences in space-use between groups and singleton whales occurred. SSIM is applicable to a broad range of spatial ecological data, providing a novel tool for map comparison.

Quoi de plus naturel qu’une clôture ? Parmi les images d’Epinal qui nous viennent spontanément à l’esprit, le bocage avec ses haies bien ordonnées, évoque une relation apaisée, rationnelle, arcadienne avec une nature nourricière et bienveillante. Pourtant, la prolifération des clôtures en milieu rural depuis un siècle a suscité la curiosité de nombreux chercheurs dans des disciplines variées. Qu’il s’agisse de protéger la nature de dégradations engendrées par les populations humaines - dans le cas d’espaces protégés -, ou à l’inverse de protéger les humains contre des dangers « naturels » - comme dans le cas de la prévention routière, ces clôtures semblent répondre à une nécessité absolue de ségrégation spatiale entre les hommes et la nature : Quoi de moins naturel qu’une clôture ? Vu sous cet angle, le conflit politico-environnemental engendré par la propagation récente des engrillagements forestiers en Sologne reflète assez bien l’ambiguïté de nos perceptions vis-à-vis du caractère naturel ou non de ces clôtures. La Sologne est une région naturelle Française couvrant près de 500 000 hectares délimitée au nord par la vallée de la Loire et au sud par la vallée du Cher. Fruit d’une occupation humaine attestée depuis le XIe siècle, conjuguée à des contraintes écologiques spécifiques, le paysage Solognot est aujourd’hui caractérisé par son couvert boisé important (environ 50% de la surface) et ses populations importantes de grand gibier, qui entretiennent la longue réputation cynégétique de cette région ; la propriété privée y est largement majoritaire (plus de 90% de la surface forestière). En 2012, une agitation médiatique (film, articles de presse, sites internet) cristallisent un conflit environnemental latente, faisant intervenir des éléments écologiques – les effets supposés bénéfiques ou néfastes de ces engrillagements sur la grande faune, mais aussi politiques – la nécessité de réglementer les engrillagements, et culturels - la sauvegarde du « paysage Solognot ». Afin d’analyser ce conflit, une approche interdisciplinaire de type Political Ecology a été menée, mêlant travail d’enquête auprès de la population et étude du fonctionnement écologique des espaces engrillagés. Ces travaux ont montré que les engrillagements modifient la répartition spatiale des cerfs. La recherche d’effets cascades sur les oiseaux forestiers - résultants des surdensités locales de cerfs en espace engrillagé - n’a cependant pas mis en évidence d’effet négatif. A partir des enquêtes, il apparaît que le conflit est pluridimensionnel et que l’aspect écologique – bien réel – ne suffit pas à lui seul pour comprendre l’enjeu de ce débat au sujet des engrillagements. Ces résultats génèrent une réflexion sur la complexité des conflits environnementaux, et la nécessité d’envisager ces conflits sous des angles différents. Cela implique d’utiliser des outils et des approches issues de plusieurs disciplines, mais aussi et surtout de parvenir à mettre en résonance le matériel hétérogène ainsi obtenu, afin de proposer une approche multifacette mais cohérente. Dans ce cas d’étude, les résultats sur les effets cascades se sont par exemple révélés extrêmement marginaux, alors qu’une étude parallèle sur le comportement du sanglier en milieu engrillagé aurait probablement été très pertinente. Cela amène plus largement à réfléchir sur le « cadrage » des problèmes environnementaux, et sur les choix conscients ou non que nous faisons lorsque nous décrivons une situation comme problématique pour « la nature ». Plus généralement, ces résultats incitent à (re)placer le politique au cœur de nos réflexions sur ce qu’est la « nature », y compris dans la façon dont nous écologues posons nos questions de recherches. / What could be more natural than a fence? Among the traditional images in our collective heritage, a pastoral landscape with well maintained hedges evokes a calm, rational, Arcadian relationship between man and a benevolent, sustaining ature. Yet the century-long proliferation of fences in our rural landscapes has attracted the curiosity of numerous researchers from a variety of disciplines. Whether the goal is to protect nature from the degradations caused by human populations - as in the case of natural protected areas, or inversely, to protect humans from “natural” dangers – as in the case of accident prevention and road safety, fences seem to respond to a primordial necessity to segregate man and nature in space: What could be less natural than a fence? With this in mind, the political/environmental conflict over the recent propagation of forest fences in Sologne reflects quite well the ambiguity of how we perceive such fences – or they “natural” or not? The Sologne is an officially designated “natural region” in France. It extends over nearly 500,000 hectares bordered on the North by the Loire valley and on the South by the Cher valley. The Sologne landscape is the fruit of human occupation, certain since the XI century, combined with specific ecological constraints. Today, Sologne is characterized by extensive forest cover (around 50% of the surface area) and by large populations of big game animals, maintaining the region’s a long history of hunting. Furthermore, land ownership in Sologne is mainly private and more than 90% of the forested area is in private holdings. In 2012, some media excitement (film, newspaper articles, internet sites) crystallized an environmental conflict calling on ecological arguments – the supposed beneficial or detrimental effects of the fencing networks on big game, but also on political arguments – the need to regulate these networks, and on cultural arguments – preserving the Sologne landscape. In order to disentangle the structural lines of this conflict, we applied an interdisciplinary, Political Ecology approach; we combined opinion polls among the inhabitants with the study of ecological functions within the fenced zones. We observed that fences induced modifications of deer habitat use. However, our investigations into a possible cascade effect on forest birds resulting from localized deer over-population in fenced areas revealed no evidence of any negative impact. From our opinion polls, we found that the conflict seems to be multi-dimensional and that the ecological aspect – whose existence is indeed supported by fact – is not sufficient alone to understand what is at stake in this fencing dispute. Our results highlight the complexity of environmental conflicts, and the importance of viewing these conflicts from many different angles. Apprehending this complexity implies using tools and approaches from several different disciplines, but also – and above all – making the heterogeneous results obtained resonate together, in order to propose a coherent, multi-facetted approach. In this study for example, the results obtained for potential cascade effects on birds were extremely marginal, whereas a parallel study on wild boar behavior patterns in an environment with a fencing network would probably have been very pertinent. This leads us to the broader question of the “framework” of environmental problems and to the question of the choices we make – whether consciously or not – when we describe a situation as detrimental to “Nature”. More generally, the results from this study encourage us to put politics (back) into the center of our reflections surrounding the question: What is nature? – and to keep this in mind when we as ecologists define our research hypotheses.