Neste trabalho será feito um modelo espaço-temporal contínuo para preços de imóveis na cidade de São Paulo estimado através de métodos Bayesianos. Faremos uma decomposição da série em tendência e ciclo além de incorporar um conjunto de variáveis explicativas e efeitos aleatórios espaciais projetados no contínuo. Este modelo introduz um novo método para analisar a formação dos preços dos lançamentos imobiliários. Consideramos em nosso modelo hedônico, além das características intrínsecas, também as características da vizinhança e o ambiente econômico. Com este modelo, conseguimos observar os preços de equilíbrio para as respectivas localizações e uma interpretação mais clara da dinâmica de preços dos imóveis entre janeiro de 2000 e dezembro de 2013 para a cidade de São Paulo. / In this work will be made a continuous spatial-temporal model for real estate prices in the city of São Paulo estimated using Bayesian methods. We will decompose the series into a trend and cycle, and incorporate a set of explanatory variables and random spatial effects projected into the continuum. This model introduces a new method to analyze the price formation of real estate launches. We consider in our hedonic model, besides the intrinsic characteristics, also the characteristics of the neighborhood and the economic environment. With this model, we were able to observe the equilibrium prices for the respective locations and a clearer interpretation of the dynamics of real estate prices between January 2000 and December 2013 for the city of São Paulo.

Este trabalho investiga o efeito do saneamento sobre educação, ou seja, as consequências educacionais das crianças que apresentam estado de saúde debilitado por terem contraído Doenças Relacionadas ao Saneamento Ambiental Inadequado (DRSAI). Nesse sentido, condições de infraestrutura dos domicílios, expressas pela variável de acesso a saneamento básico, por impactar a saúde dos indivíduos, é mais um dos determinantes dos indicadores educacionais. A partir de dados municipais e distritais, o efeito do saneamento sobre educação foi obtido em duas etapas. Na primeira, utilizou-se dados por município do Censo Demográfico (IBGE), Censo Escolar (INEP), Sistema Nacional de Informações Sobre Saneamento (SNIS), entre outros, para anos 2000 e 2010, com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito do saneamento sobre educação. Na segunda etapa, verificou-se a hipótese que dá suporte ao efeito da etapa anterior: o efeito do saneamento sobre a saúde. Essa investigação foi realizada por meio de dados por distrito construídos a partir do Censo Demográfico do Universo por setor censitário (IBGE), Cadastro Nacional de Endereços para Fins Estatísticos (CNEFE, 2011), Diretório Nacional de Endereços (DNE, 2015) e Departamento de Informática do Sistema Único de Saúde (DATASUS, 2010). Ambas etapas fizeram uso de econometria espacial e não-espacial para estimação dos dois efeitos. Os resultados da primeira etapa indicam que o efeito do aumento de uma unidade percentual no acesso a saneamento está associado a um aumento de 0,11 pontos percentuais na taxa de frequência escolar, a uma queda de 0,31 pontos percentuais na taxa de distorção idade-série e a também uma queda de 0,12 pontos percentuais na taxa de abandono escolar. Os resultados da segunda etapa indicam que, em geral, o acesso aos serviços de saneamento inadequados causa impacto positivo na taxa de incidência de internações por DRSAI (por mil habitantes), a variável de saúde considerada nesse estudo. Para a população de todas as idades, o impacto total médio do aumento de 1% na parcela de domicílios servidos por água da chuva armazenada em cisterna ou caixa de cimento é 0,217 casos por mil habitantes. Quando se considera a porcentagem dos domicílios que tem banheiro conectado a uma fossa rudimentar, esse impacto é 0,035 casos por 1000 habitantes. Por outro lado, no que diz respeito à variável adequada de saneamento, o impacto total médio de 1% na porcentagem de domicílios particulares permanentes conectados à rede de distribuição de água e que, além disso, na quadra onde estão localizados é inexistente condições de esgoto a céu aberto é -0,166 casos por mil habitantes. A variável de maior impacto total médio refere-se à porcentagem de domicílios que não tem banheiro e, além disso, possuem presença de esgoto a céu aberto em suas condições de entorno. O aumento em uma unidade percentual nessa variável gera aumento de 3,281 na taxa de incidência de internações por DRSAI. Outro resultado desse estudo é que a população mais jovem é a mais atingida pelo acesso a condições inadequadas dos serviços de saneamento básico tanto em relação à saúde quanto à educação. Por fim, a recomendação de política pública apontou que, se fossem implementadas políticas de mitigação das condições inapropriadas de saneamento, iniciando por diminuir em um por cento a porcentagem de domicílios que não têm banheiro e estão expostos a condições de esgoto a céu aberto o setor público da saúde economizaria recursos num valor correspondente a 4,4% do gasto federal total investido por ano em saneamento. Dessa forma, essa política pode ser uma estratégia para acelerar as metas de universalização do acesso aos serviços de saneamento básico no Brasil. / This dissertation studies the effect of sanitation on education, in other words, the educational consequences for children whose health has been affected by Diseases Related to Inadequate Environmental Sanitation (DRIES). In this sense, infrastructure conditions of dwellings, expressed by the variable of access to basic sanitation, for impacting the health of individuals, is one of the determinants of educational indicators. The effect of sanitation on education was obtained in two steps, from municipality and district level data. At the first step, we applied data at municipality level, from the Population Census (IBGE), the School Census (INEP), the National Information System on Sanitation (SNIS), among others, for the years 2000 and 2010, with the goal of evaluating the effect of sanitation on education. At the second step, we analyzed the hypothesis that supports the effect of the previous step: the effect of sanitation on health. This analysis was conducted applying data at district level, which was constructed from the results from the universe of the Population Census (IBGE) by census tract, the National Register of Addresses for Statistical Purposes (CNEFE, 2011), the National Address Directory (DNE, 2015) and the Department of Informatics of the Unified Health System (DATASUS, 2010). Both steps made use of spatial and non-spatial econometrics techniques for estimating the two effects. The results of the first step indicate that the effect of one percentage increase in access to sanitation is associated with an increase of 0.11 percentage points in school attendance rate, a decrease of 0.31 percentage points in age-grade distortion rate, and also a decrease of 0.12 percentage points in the school dropout rate. The results of the second step indicate that, in general, access to inadequate sanitation services has a positive impact on the incidence of hospitalizations because of DRIES (per thousand inhabitants), the health variable considered in this study. For the population of all ages, the average total impact of a 1% increase in the share of dwellings served by rain water (stored in cisterns or cement tanks) is 0.217 cases per thousand inhabitants. Considering the percentage of dwellings with toilets connected to rudimentary cesspools, this impact is 0.035 cases per thousand inhabitants. On the other hand, with regard to the appropriate sanitation variable, the average total impact of 1% increase in the share of permanent dwellings connected to the water distribution network and whose block does not present open sewage conditions is -0.166 cases per thousand inhabitants. The variable with highest average total impact refers to the percentage of dwellings that have no toilet and, moreover, have the presence of open sewage in their surrounding conditions. The increase in a percentage unit in this variable generates an increase of 3.281 in the rate of incidence of hospitalizations because of DRIES. Another result of this study is that the younger population is the most affected by the poor conditions of access to basic sanitation services, both in terms of health on education. Finally, the public policy recommendations pointed out that, if the policies for mitigating inadequate sanitation conditions were implemented, starting with a one percentage decrease in the share of dwellings that do not have toilets and are exposed to open sewage, the health sector would save an amount corresponding to 4.4% of total federal spending invested annually in sanitation. Therefore, this policy can be a strategy to accelerate the targets for universal access to basic sanitation services in Brazil

O deslocamento forçado na Colômbia entendido como as migrações de pessoas dentro das fronteiras do país geradas ou forçadas pelas ações de violência dos grupos armados colombianos, posiciona hoje o país como o segundo no mundo com o maior numero de pessoas deslocadas forçosamente depois da Síria -segundo o relatório do Centro de Monitoramento do Deslocamento Interno (IDMC, na sigla em inglês) (2015). Desde 1985 a 1º de agosto de 2016, 7.844.527 pessoas têm sido deslocadas no país segundo o Governo da Colômbia, quase 15% da população total na atualidade. Nesta pesquisa se analisa a partir de uma perspectiva espacial o deslocamento forçado na Colômbia analisando através do mapa as relações entre conflitos sociais e espaço geográfico. São representadas e modelizadas as características e dinâmicas do fenômeno ao longo do tempo a partir de diferentes técnicas do mapeamento e da modelização gráfica. Paralelamente, é desenvolvido um estudo da evolução espaço-tempo do fenômeno social utilizando econometria espacial para estabelecer as correlações espaciais entre deslocamento e conflito armado, a partir de uma abordagem estatística. E num terceiro componente desta pesquisa, se desenvolve uma análise da política pública do Governo da Colômbia que responde às vítimas da violência no marco do conflito armado, incorporando como ferramenta de análise a cartografia produzida nesta pesquisa. Como parte dos resultados se constata que o deslocamento forçado é um fenômeno dinâmico que não se distribui aleatoriamente no espaço e pelo contrario apresenta concentração espacial. A cartografia mostra que o deslocamento não tem tido o mesmo comportamento ao longo dos anos, as migrações de pessoas têm diminuído no norte do país incrementando o volume no oriente e pacífico sul, aproximadamente a partir de 2008 quando este conduta se acentua. Da mesma forma se evidencia que os principais destinos da população deslocada são os polos econômicos e populacionais do país, onde geralmente a oferta de programas de atenção e reparação a vítimas é maior. / Forced displacement in Colombia, understood as the migrations of people within the borders of the country generated or forced by the violent actions of the Colombian armed groups, making it the country with the second highest number of internally displaced people in the world after Syria - according to the report from the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) (2015). Since 1985 to August 1st 2016, 7.844.527 persons have been displaced in the country according the Government of Colombia (GoC), almost 12 percent of the current Colombia\'s population. In this study is analyzed the internal displacement in Colombia using a spatial perspective, where through the map is analyzed the relations between social conflicts and geographic space. The characteristics and dynamics of the phenomenon are represented and modeled over time from different techniques of mapping and graphic modeling. In parallel, is developed a study of the space-time evolution of the social phenomenon using spatial econometrics to establish the spatial correlations between displacement and armed conflict, from a statistical approach. And in a third component of this research, is developed an analysis of the public policy of the Government of Colombia for attention of the violence\'s victims within the framework of the armed conflict, incorporating as tool of analysis the cartography produced in this research. As part of the results it is verified that the forced displacement is a dynamic phenomenon that is not distributed randomly in space and on the contrary presents a spatial concentration. The cartography shows that the displacement has not had the same behavior over the years; the migrations of people have diminished in the north of the country, increasing the volume in the east and pacific south, approximately from 2008 when this trend is accentuated. In the same way, it is evident that the main destinations of the displaced population are the economic centers and main cities of the country, where the offer of programs of attention and reparation to victims is greater.

Cette thèse porte sur la prise en compte des interactions dans l’estimation de l’effet d’une politique publique. En effet, les méthodes standards d’estimation s’appuient généralement sur des hypothèses fortes excluant partiellement ou totalement les effets d’interactions aussi bien dans le processus de sélection des bénéficiaires que dans la performance de la politique. Cependant, la validité de ces hypothèses est discutable surtout dans le cadre d’une politique non-expérimentale, car un individu selon qu’il est bénéficiaire ou non de la politique ne vit pas en autarcie, il est en interaction avec son milieu. Ainsi, l’effet estimé de la politique par les méthodes traditionnelles est susceptible d’être biaisé (surestimation ou sous-estimation), avec pour conséquences des prises de décisions basées sur des résultats non fiables.Dans cette thèse, nous supposons que le traitement reçu par un individu peut affecter les autres individus de son voisinage à travers différents mécanismes de diffusion. Nous proposons un cadre méthodologique d’évaluation basé sur les méthodes de l’économétrie spatiale. Nous développons quatre extensions spatialisées de méthodes d’évaluation prenant en compte les interactions dans les processus de sélection et au niveau de la performance de la politique, avec une application empirique pour chaque méthode. / This thesis focuses on the integration of interactions in the estimation of the public policy’s effect. Indeed, the estimation standard methods usually rely on strong assumptions that exclude partially or completely the interaction effect both in the selection process of beneficiaries and in the performance of the policy. However, the validity of these assumptions is questionable, particularly in the context of a non-experimental policy because an individual according as it is the beneficiary or not the policy, is not isolated: he interacts with his neighborhood. Thus, the estimated effect of the policy by traditional methods is likely to be biased (underestimation or overestimation) therefore induce decision-making based on erroneous conclusions. Therefore, in this thesis, we assume that the treatment received by an individual can affect other individuals in his neighborhood through different diffusion mechanisms. Using spatial econometric methods, we propose a methodological framework to take into account both in selection process and in the outcomes the interactions in the estimation of the policy effect. Four extensions of the evaluation methods are developed with an empirical study for each method.

La dynamique d'ajustement structurel dans le secteur laitier en France est l'une des plus fortes de tous les secteurs agricoles avec des rythmes particulièrement élevés de disparition des exploitations et de croissance de la taille moyenne par exploitation. Cette dynamique est hétérogène dans l'espace, les régions les plus touchées sont celles où la densité laitière est faible à l'origine, celles qui résistent sont celles où la densité est élevée et où un tissu industriel est bien développé. Ces mouvements ont eu lieu malgré une politique agricole qui a cherché, au travers de multiples instruments (quota laitier, soutien des prix, aides directes…), à limiter ces mouvements et à maintenir la production laitière sur une grande partie du territoire français. Les modifications à venir de ces instruments risquent de modifier le paysage laitier jusqu'ici connu, et ainsi d'affecter la localisation et la structure des exploitations laitières. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif principal de cette thèse est d'analyser les déterminants de la croissance et de la localisation des exploitations laitières, d'identifier quels sont ceux qui renforcent la croissance et l'agglomération des exploitations et ceux qui ont tendance à limiter cette croissance et à disperser les exploitations et la production. Pour ce faire, nous avons dans un premier temps, estimé, en utilisant la méthode de chaînes de Markov, l'impact de certains facteurs économiques et politiques, sur les changements de taille des exploitations laitières. Dans un deuxième temps, à l'aide des méthodes d'économétrie spatiale, nous avons introduit une dimension spatiale à cette analyse afin d'appréhender les différences régionales (départementales) et de détecter d'éventuels effets d'agglomération. Dans un troisième temps, nous avons intégré de manière originale un modèle dynamique spatial récursif au modèle de Markov non-stationnaire afin de mesurer la distribution de la taille des exploitations selon la localisation en prenant en compte les interactions entre localisations. Ces différentes méthodes ont permis de montrer que les externalités positives liées à l'agglomération des exploitations laitières sont des facteurs prépondérants dans la détermination non seulement de la localisation mais aussi de la taille des exploitations laitières. Les externalités pécuniaires et les relations marchandes d'amont et d'aval ainsi que les prix des inputs et des outputs sont tout aussi importants dans la détermination de ces dynamiques. Les politiques agricoles, ici considérées au travers des aides directes du premier et second pilier, ont un impact assez faible dans l'ajustement structurel des exploitations laitières, seules les dotations à l'installation des jeunes s'avèrent très significatives et positivement liées à la localisation et la croissance des exploitations laitières. Les réglementations environnementales ont un effet plutôt dispersif des exploitations laitières et ceci particulièrement pour les grandes. Les activités concurrentes de l'activité laitière ont également un effet négatif sur la localisation des exploitations laitières mais cet effet s'estompe avec l'augmentation de la taille des exploitations. / Structural change in French dairy sector is one of the most important in agriculture with high rates of decreasing in the number of farms and increasing average farm size. This structural change is heterogeneous in space; the regions the most affected are those which are not traditional dairy producing. The regions which resist are the traditional dairy ones where dairying is highly developed. Agricultural policy instruments (dairy quota, price support, direct payments…) have affected those changes while trying to maintain the dairy production on a large part of France. The modifications to come of those instruments could modify the dairy farm location and structure. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the determinants of dairy farm growth and location, to identify which are those they foster growth and agglomeration of dairy farms and those they tend to slow down this growth and disperse dairy farms. To do so, we firstly estimate, using the non stationary Markov model, the impact of some economic and policy factors on the size farm distribution. Secondly, by means of the methods of spatial econometrics, we introduce a spatial dimension in this analysis to deal with regional differences and detect a possible effect of agglomeration externalities. Thirdly, we integrate a spatial dynamic recursive component to the non stationary Markov model. This allows us to model the effects of factors influencing the number, the size and the location of the dairy farms and to take account of interaction between locations. Those different methods allow us to show that agglomeration externalities are very important in the determination of the farm location as well as the growth of farm size. Pecuniary externalities and forward and backward linkages as well as the market prices are also determinant factors affecting farm structure and location. Agricultural policies, namely second pillar direct payments have a rather low impact in the structural adjustment of dairy farms. However subsidies to installation of young farmers are highly significant and positively related to farm growth and location. Environmental stringency seems to negatively affect dairy farm location and especially medium and large sized ones. Other livestock activities seem to compete with dairy farms especially smaller ones.

Au cours des dix dernières années, les prix immobiliers ont augmenté de façon considérable. Selon certains observateurs, cette hausse peut au moins en partie être attribuée à une insuffisance de l’offre, elle-même due à des politiques foncières restrictives mises en place par certaines communes. Cette thèse cherche à comprendre ce qui motive une commune à instaurer de telles politiques de maîtrise de la croissance. Nous nous plaçons dans le cadre de la Nouvelle Economie Politique et modélisons cette décision comme le résultat d’un jeu de pouvoir entre différents intérêts liés au foncier, arbitré par des élus locaux opportunistes. Ce jeu de pouvoir oppose principalement les propriétaires immobiliers et fonciers, qui peuvent trouver des alliés parmi les entreprises locales, qui s’associent au sein de growth ou ideas machines. Dans un premier modèle nous décrivons ce jeu d’influence sous différentes hypothèses concernant l’influence du vote et du lobbying. Nous montrons que la rigueur de la politique implémentée peut sous certaines conditions être liée de façon négative à la part des propriétaires dans la population locale – et ceci malgré le fait que ces derniers sont clairement partisans d’une politique stricte. Par ailleurs, la mobilité des individus rend les décisions des communes interdépendantes et nous parvenons à une solution d’équilibre qui s’apparente directement au modèle spatial autorégressif utilisé en économétrie spatiale. Une étude empirique portant sur la taxe locale d’équipement confirme l’hypothèse d’interactions stratégiques et montre que les choix des élus sont avant tout influencés par les habitants-propriétaires et les ideas machines d’un côté et par les agriculteurs de l’autre. Dans une deuxième analyse, nous étudions si les élus locaux se servent des mesures de maîtrise de la croissance d’une manière stratégique afin de faciliter leur réélection. Nous développons un modèle de vote probabiliste dans lequel la composition de la population est endogène à la politique foncière. Une étude empirique confirme que les choix de zonage des élus locaux sont influencés par la mobilité de l’électorat, même si leur comportement ne peut pas être qualifié de stratégique. / Over the last ten years, real estate prices have risen considerably and accordingly to most observers, this can at least partly be attributed to an insufficient supply, due to local growth control measures. This thesis tries to understand what motivates local authorities implementing such policies. Local politicians are considered as opportunistic and their decision is modelled as the result of a political struggle between different land-related interests. This game for influence mainly opposes the owners of developed and undeveloped land, who find allies amongst local business interests that might form growth or ideas machines. Our first model describes this struggle under different hypotheses concerning the influence of voting and lobbying. We show that the growth controls implemented might under some conditions be less strict the greater the percentage of homeowners in the local population – despite the fact that homeowners favour strict policies. When individuals are mobile, local decisions become interdependent, and under imperfect mobility our theoretically derived equilibrium solution can directly be interpreted as a spatial autoregressive model. Our empirical analysis concerning the “taxe locale d’équipement” confirms our predictions concerning strategic interactions and shows that local decisions are influenced by “homevoters” and ideas machines on the one side, and by the local farmers on the other side. Our second model examines if local politicians use growth control policies strategically in order to modify the local electorate in a manner that facilitates their re-election. Our model is based on probabilistic voting and the composition of the local population is considered as endogenous. Our empirical analysis confirms that zoning decisions are influenced by the mobility of the local electorate, even if we cannot ascertain that politicians are acting strategically.

Dans le présent travail de recherche, nous proposons d’analyser principalement l’effet direct et indirect du changement climatique sur la production agricole et la croissance économique. Pour ce faire, la voie méthodologique retenue dans cette thèse est une voie empirique, s’appuyant à la fois sur l’économétrie spatiale, la technique de cointégration sur données de panel ainsi que le modèle d’équilibre général dynamique multisectoriel / The aim of this research is to analysis both direct and indirect effect of the climate change on the agricultural production and the economic growth. This PhD research we will be based on an empirical methodology, through applying a spacial econometrics and the cointegration technique of a panel data as well as a multisectoral general equilibrium growth model. The first part is devoted to find the effect of the climate change on the agricultural production in a macro spatial level during the period 1980-2012. The main gaol of this first chapter of this PhD is to determine the direct and indirect effect of the weather forecast and the temperature changes in one region compared to the neighbouring regions. The originality of this spacial modelisation is to give an effective spacial effect. The second part of this research is aimed to use a micro spacial analysis to find out the effect of the climate change on the agricultural production in the long term way and for each region rather then all of them together as in the first chapter. In the last part of this PhD research we developed a general and dynamic equilibrium model for the Tunisian economy taking in a count eventual climate change forcast from 2015 to 2030. Aiming to calculate the effect of this change on the agricultural production and the economic aggregate in Tunisa. The resulats show that the climate change forecast in the futur will affect the agricultural production in Tunisia in both the short run and the long term and this is because of the irrigated and non irrigated plantations. The decrease of the production will affect the food industry which will decrease the level of the investment, the employment in this sector as well as the consumption.

Le financement des soins de santé de qualité constitue un défi majeur pour les pays en développement. Malgré les efforts consentis pour améliorer l’offre des services de santé, une frange importante de la population n’a toujours pas accès aux soins de santé. La faible croissance économique, le manque des ressources, la corruption et les contraintes imposées au secteur public peuvent expliquer pourquoi la conception d’un système de financement des soins de santé est complexe. Au cours des deux dernières décennies, il y a eu une baisse de l'utilisation des services de santé après l'introduction du recouvrement des coûts dans les établissements de santé publics. Les personnes les plus touchées par cette politique sont les ménages à faibles revenus notamment dans les zones rurales qui sont le plus souvent vulnérables aux maladies. L'assurance communautaire a été proposée comme une alternative pour améliorer une meilleure accessibilité des ménages à faibles revenus aux soins de santé. L'assurance communautaire apparaît ainsi comme un outil de protection sociale pour un grand nombre de personnes qui, autrement, n'auraient pas une couverture face au risque maladie. Toutefois, un tel système d’assurance maladie ne peut avoir des effets à long terme que s’il existe une forte préférence des ménages pour une telle politique, et un capital social dans les zones rurales. Evaluer les préférences des ménages pour l'assurance communautaire est importante pour la formulation des recommandations de politique économique. Une connaissance adéquate des déterminants de la demande pour l'assurance communautaire est aussi essentielle pour l'élaboration de stratégies visant à accroître l’allocation des ressources, et à améliorer la qualité des services. La présente étude a pour objet d’évaluer les préférences des ménages pour l’assurance communautaire en milieu rural camerounais. L’usage de la méthode d’évaluation contingente suggère que les ménages à faibles revenus sont disposés à payer pour l’assurance communautaire. En outre, le capital social a un effet positif et significatif sur la demande. L’usage des doubles questions binaires pour évaluer des préférences des ménages est incompatible avec les incitations et sujets à un shift effect hétérogène expliqué par les caractéristiques intrinsèques des ménages. Les ménages très certains de leurs réponses ne sont pas sujets aux anomalies comportementales. Enfin, les préférences des ménages sont inter-indépendantes du fait des interactions spatiales expliquées par les normes sociales / The financing of quality healthcare is a major challenge for developing countries. Despite efforts to improve the provision of healthcare services, a significant proportion of the population does not always have access to healthcare services. Low economic growth, lack of economic resources, corruption and constraints on the public sector could explain why the design of a system of financing healthcare is complex. Over the past two decades, there has been a decline in the use of healthcare services after the introduction of cost recovery in public health facilities. Those most affected by this policy are low-income households particularly in rural areas that are most often vulnerable to diseases. The community-based health insurance has been proposed as an alternative to improve better access to low-income households to healthcare services. The community-based health insurance is thus a tool of social protection for many households who otherwise would not have formal insurance. However, such a health insurance scheme can have long-term effects if households have a strong preference for it, and there is social capital in rural areas. Assessing the preferences of households for the community-based health insurance is important for the formulation of policy recommendations. Adequate knowledge on the determinants of demand for the community-based health insurance is essential for developing strategies to increase resource allocation, and improve the quality of services. This study aims at assessing the preferences of households for community-based health insurance in rural areas of Cameroon. The use of contingent valuation method suggests that low-income households are willing to pay for the community-based health insurance. Furthermore, social capital has a positive and significant effect on the demand, and the use of double-bounded dichotomous choice to assess the preferences of households is incentive incompatible. We also found that there is heterogeneous shift effect in preferences anomalies and could be mostly explained by the salient characteristics of households. A striking result is that more certain households are not subjected to preference anomalies. Lastly, there is spatial dependence in the preferences of households explained by social norms

<p>    </p> <p>This study’s purpose is to examine the relationship between broadband and online agriculture job postings. While rural broadband has been a wide studied topic, little attention has been focused on broadband’s relationship to agricultural job demand. This research uses a spatial count model that estimates agriculture and digital agriculture jobs by U.S. counties. Data was collected using the Google Jobs API developed by SerpAPI. Job advertisements were collected monthly from June 2021 through June 2022 and again in November 2022. Digital agriculture jobs postings were extracted as a subset from the overall dataset. By searching for key terms in job advertisements, context analysis filtered and identified digital agriculture jobs. Digital agriculture job openings were identified in order to examine how broadband relates to data intensive jobs in agriculture. Jobs focused in digital agriculture require increased levels of technology and increased data throughput. We hypothesized that occurrences of digital agriculture job openings would likely be reliant on broadband. Broadband data in this study represents average download speeds, average upload speeds, the percentage of households with internet access, and the percentage of the population with internet speeds at and above 100 over 20 megabits per second. The approach for modeling this data requires a hurdle negative binomial regression model as our count data encountered many zero observations and suffered from overdispersion. Spatial effects were incorporated into the model to alleviate spatial autocorrelation and help define agricultural job openings among surrounding counties. Our findings support the funding of broadband policies in agriculture. While controlling for outside factors such as demographics and county production, we found that agriculture job openings were positively influenced by broadband. However, we determined that broadband metrics show no relationship with the presence of digital agriculture job openings likely due to rarity and potential seasonality in the data. This information aids as a steppingstone for increasing the knowledge of broadband’s impact on agriculture. This study may aid in supporting future studies that seek to define causal relationships between broadband and agriculture jobs. </p>

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