The first aim of this work is to describe the subordinate implicit clauses in Italian and in French and to compare the structures of these clauses in both languages. The second aim is to examine the use of the subordinate clauses formed with gerund in Italian and in French in a corpus of journalistic texts. The work is divided into a theoretical and a practical part. At the beginning, the theoretical part includes an explanation of some notions and a short description of the morphology and syntax of the non-finite verb forms in Italian and in French. A larger part of the work is then dedicated to the description of the subordinate implicit clauses in Italian and in French. The practical part contains an analysis of the subordinate gerund clauses in both languages. The corpus analysis is conducted using the corpus InterCorp and its aim is to examine the frequency, the semantics and the function of gerund in Italian and in French in journalistic texts.

DANTAS, Antônio Ademilton Pinheiro. Estudo da movimentação ocular de alunos do 9º ano do ensino fundamental durante a leitura de sentenças coordenadas sindéticas adversativas e subordinadas adverbiais concessivas. 2016. 123f. – Dissertação (Mestrado) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Letras, Fortaleza (CE), 2016. / Submitted by Gustavo Daher (gdaherufc@hotmail.com) on 2017-05-26T15:39:43Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_dis_aapdantas.pdf: 835786 bytes, checksum: 509e2d0fc3f2db5def0afd69b3f5f751 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Márcia Araújo (marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2017-05-29T11:04:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_dis_aapdantas.pdf: 835786 bytes, checksum: 509e2d0fc3f2db5def0afd69b3f5f751 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-29T11:04:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_dis_aapdantas.pdf: 835786 bytes, checksum: 509e2d0fc3f2db5def0afd69b3f5f751 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016 / Investigates if the cost of the processing of coordinate clauses is higher than the cost of the processing of subordinate clauses in a group of 9th grade students. In Engelkamp and Rummer (2002) and Rummer, Engelkamp and Konieczny (2003), it was observed that the processing of subordinate clauses is less costly than the coordinate ones in tasks of memorization, as suggested that the displacement of the subordinate clause influences the costs of the processing. Such results were confronted with the exercise of teaching subordinate conjunctions to 9th graders, which ended up with the proposal of this research. The expectation is that the students would have more difficulties in reading subordinate clauses due to the lack of knowledge of the logical relation served by the conjunction. Given the variability of the logical relations and the lack of time for the execution of this research, we could investigate only the relations of opposition and concession. To do so, three experiments of eye tracking were developed: (i) the first one investigated the cost of reading processing of subordinate clause displacement; (ii) the second one compared the reading process of coordinate and subordinate clauses; (iii) and the third one observed the importance of four different conjunctions in coordinate clauses. Twenty-four experimental items, made up of conditions, were created, which contemplated, all together, the three experiments listed above: four subordinate clauses, two without and two with displacement, which used the conjunctions “embora” (although) and “ainda que” (even if); four coordinate clauses, which used the conjunctions “entretanto” (however), “mas” (but), “no entanto” (yet) and “e” (and). A question of control of attention followed all clauses. Forty-two 9th graders and forty proficient adult readers participated in the experiment. The observed measurements were the total time of reading of the complete clauses, and the time of the first reading in the complete sentence/clause. For experiment one (subordinate displacement), measuring the first reading, an interaction between group and displacement was found (F=4,06, p = 0.04), besides the main effect for displacement (p<0.001), but group effect was not observed. For total time measurement, only main group effect was found (p<0.001). For the study of the processing of the coordinate and subordinate clauses (experiment two), main group effects were found for the first reading and the total reading time (p=0.04 e p<0.001). In the study of coordinate conjunctions, we observed an important difference for each conjunction in the first reading (p=0.006), but not in the total time of reading. There was significant difference in the total time of reading for the group (p<0.001). The results suggest that the group of students read in a different way and more slowly than the adult group, but this measurement is nor sensitive to coordinate and subordinate clauses. However, the displacement of the subordinate clause to the front position of the sentence generates a higher cost of processing for the students, suggesting that the school learning of this topic is relevant for the coating of the information in the subordinate clause. For the study of the conjunctions, it was observed that the first reading is sensitive to the length of the conjunction, because the conjunction “e” (and) has a time of processing faster in the total time of the reading, which is quite different from the conjunction “mas” (but), which shows clear adversative relationship given its frequency of use. / Investiga o custo de processamento de sentenças coordenadas e de sentenças subordinadas em um grupo de estudantes do 9º ano do Ensino Fundamental (EF). Em Engelkamp e Rummer (2002) e Rummer, Engelkamp e Konieczny (2003), observou-se que o processamento de sentenças subordinadas é menos custoso do que o de sentenças coordenadas em tarefas de memorização. Os resultados de Rummer, Engelkamp e Konieczny (2003) também sugeriram que o deslocamento da sentença subordinada interfere nos custos de processamento. Tais achados entram em confronto com impressões do autor derivadas do exercício da prática docente de ensino de conjunções subordinadas ao 9º ano do EF, o que culminou para a proposição desta pesquisa. Foram elaborados experimentos cuja previsão era a de que os estudantes teriam mais dificuldade de ler sentenças subordinadas, uma dificuldade decorrente do pouco conhecimento da relação lógica veiculada pelas conjunções. Dada a variabilidade das relações lógicas e o escasso tempo de execução desta pesquisa, foram investigadas aqui apenas as relações de oposição e concessão. Para tanto, foram propostos três experimentos de rastreamento ocular. O primeiro investigou o custo de processamento de leitura da estrutura subordinada deslocada; o segundo comparou o custo de processamento de leitura de sentenças coordenadas e subordinadas; e o terceiro observou o peso de quatro diferentes conjunções em orações coordenadas. Foram produzidos 24 itens experimentais, compostos de condições, que contemplavam em conjunto os três experimentos supracitados: quatro orações subordinadas, sendo duas sem e duas com deslocamento, que faziam uso das conjunções “embora” e “ainda que”; quatro orações coordenadas, que faziam uso das conjunções “entretanto”, “mas”, “no entanto” e “e”. Seguia-se a todas as frases uma pergunta de controle de atenção. Participaram dos experimentos 42 estudantes do 9º ano do EF e 40 adultos leitores proficientes. As medidas observadas foram o tempo total de leitura nas sentenças completas e o tempo de primeira leitura na sentença/período completo. Para o experimento 1 (deslocamento da subordinada), na medida de primeira leitura, encontrou-se uma interação entre grupo e deslocamento (F = 4,06, p = 0.04), além de efeito principal para deslocamento (p < 0.001), mas não houve efeito de grupo. Para a medida de tempo total, foi encontrado apenas efeito principal de grupo (p < 0.001). Para o estudo do processamento da coordenação e subordinação (experimento 2), foram encontrados efeitos principais de grupo para a primeira leitura e o tempo total de leitura (p = 0.04 e p < 0.001). E no estudo das conjunções coordenativas, observou-se diferença significativa para cada conjunção na primeira leitura (p = 0.006), mas não no tempo total de leitura. Houve diferença significativa no tempo total de leitura para o grupo (p < 0.001). Os resultados sugerem que o grupo de estudantes lê de modo diferente e mais lentamente do que o grupo de adultos, mas essa medida não é sensível às sentenças coordenadas e subordinadas. Já o deslocamento da subordinada para a posição inicial da sentença gera maior custo de processamento para os estudantes, sugerindo que a aprendizagem escolar deste tema tem relevância para o encapsulamento da informação do período subordinado. Para o estudo das conjunções, observou-se que a primeira leitura é sensível ao tamanho da conjunção, pois a conjunção “e” tem um tempo de processamento mais rápido no tempo total de leitura, diferenciando-se da conjunção “mas”, que apresenta relação adversativa explícita dada sua frequência de uso.

O presente trabalho investiga o uso da articulaÃÃo hipotÃtica adverbial concessiva na construÃÃo da argumentaÃÃo. Com base nos pressupostos funcionalistas, analisamos, de um modo integrado, os aspectos sintÃticos, textual-semÃnticos e textual-discursivos associados ao uso da oraÃÃo concessiva na construÃÃo da argumentaÃÃo em artigos de opiniÃo e editoriais. Verificamos que os aspectos sintÃticos da articulaÃÃo da oraÃÃo concessiva estÃo relacionados aos aspectos pragmÃticos. Dessa forma, a posiÃÃo da oraÃÃo concessiva (anteposiÃÃo, posposiÃÃo e intercalaÃÃo) reflete a maneira como o falante decide organizar seu discurso em virtude do propÃsito comunicativo; portanto, està ligada Ãs funÃÃes discursivas a que se presta. Assim, verificamos que, nos artigos de opiniÃo e editoriais, a diferenÃa na freqÃÃncia do uso da anteposiÃÃo e da posposiÃÃo nÃo foi significativa. Em nossa investigaÃÃo, alguns conectores tendem a introduzir oraÃÃes concessivas antepostas à o caso de apesar de e por mais/menos que, enquanto outros tendem a introduzir oraÃÃes concessivas pospostas à o caso de mesmo que. A conjunÃÃo embora apareceu, no corpus em anÃlise, com a mesma freqÃÃncia em oraÃÃes antepostas e pospostas. Quanto aos aspectos textual-semÃnticos, percebemos que, da articulaÃÃo das oraÃÃes ditas concessivas, alÃm da inferÃncia de concessÃo, emergem tambÃm outras inferÃncias, tais como condiÃÃo e inclusÃo. A partir de uma anÃlise pautada nos domÃnios de interpretaÃÃo propostos por Sweetser (1999), constatamos que, nos gÃneros em estudo, a maioria das ocorrÃncias permite leitura no domÃnio epistÃmico, mas hà um nÃmero significativo de ocorrÃncias com a possibilidade de leitura no domÃnio de conteÃdo, provavelmente porque os gÃneros jornalÃsticos abordam acontecimentos, fatos sociais. Com relaÃÃo ao tipo de oraÃÃo concessiva, verificamos que, no corpus em anÃlise, predominam as do tipo factual. Ao investigarmos os aspectos textual-discursivos, percebemos que, de uma maneira geral, as oraÃÃes concessivas sÃo usadas como fundo da oraÃÃo nuclear e que, quando pospostas, geralmente constituem uma avaliaÃÃo ou um adendo à oraÃÃo nuclear; enquanto as antepostas e as intercaladas funcionam como tÃpico/guia para a informaÃÃo nÃcleo ou como fator de coesÃo discursiva. Quanto ao papel argumentativo da oraÃÃo concessiva em artigos de opiniÃo e editoriais, percebemos que esta representa uma relevante estratÃgia por meio da qual o autor, pressupondo uma objeÃÃo por parte do leitor, declara que tal objeÃÃo nÃo impedirà nem modificarà o conteÃdo expresso na oraÃÃo nuclear / The aim of this work is to investigate the usage of concessive hypotatic clauses involved in the construction of argumentation. Based on functional theories, we analyzed the syntactic aspects, the textual-discursive aspects and the textual-semantic aspects that are associated to the usage of the concessive subordinate clause involved in the construction of argumentation in newspaper articles and editorials. We observed that the syntactic aspects of concessive subordinate clause are related to the pragmatic aspects. Thus the concessive subordinate clause position (before or after main clause or embedded clause) shows the way a speaker decides to organize her utterance due to communication purposes; hence it is connected to discursive functions. We observed that in newspaper articles and editorials, the concessive clause position before or after main clause is not relevant. Our investigation shows that few conjunctions tend to introduce concessive subordinate clause before main clause, for instance apesar de and por mais/menos que, whereas other concessive conjunctions tend to introduce subordinate clause after main clause, for example mesmo que. In the corpus, the conjunction embora is as frequent in concessive clauses before main clause as in concessive clauses after main clauses. As regards the textual-semantic aspects, we observed, besides the concessive inferences, other inferences such as condition and inclusion inferences. In an analysis based on the interpretation domains proposed by Sweetser (1999), we found, in newspaper articles and editorials, that the greater number of examples allows an interpretation in the epistemic domain, but there is a meaningful number of examples that lead to a possible interpretation in the content domain, probably this is due to the fact that newspapers genres are related to social happenings and facts. Regarding concessive clause types we observed, in the corpus analyzed, that the factual concessive clauses predominate. When we verified the textual-discursive aspects, we observed, that concessive subordinate clauses are used as main clause background and when they are placed after main clause they often represent an evaluation or an addendum to main clause, whereas concessive clause before main clause and embedded concessive clause work as a topic to a nuclear information or as a way to attain discursive cohesion. As regards the argumentative role of concessive clause in newspaper articles and editorials, we observed concessive subordinate clause represents an important strategy; through concessive clause, the author presupposes an objection on the part of the reader and he declares that the objection does not hinder the content expressed in the main clause

The benefits of explicit knowledge for language learning is a much debated issue. In this study this question is approached from a new perspective since it focuses on the correlation between students’ concept images and their language ability. The focused concept is the subordinate clause in German. By means of a short written test the performance of 12 Swedish university-level students in three types of tasks was elicited: translating, correcting an erroneous text and commenting on grammatical differences in parallel German and Swedish texts. The students were asked to think aloud, but complementary questions were also asked if verbalizations were not lucid. A semi-structured interview that focused on school experiences, attitudes towards language learning and grammatical concepts followed. One year later the same procedure was repeated with three of the students who had successfully finished their first year of German.As for the concept images many students had only blurred conceptions of subordinate clauses, especially when they did not have access to texts to refer to. When they had the help from artefacts they often focused on visual clues such as subjunctions and verb position. Many verbalized statements were simply wrong. A common concept image described the subordinate clause as positioned after the main clause with the function of adding extra information. This led to the conclusion that the relative clause is the prototypical subordinate clause.Despite the often vague concept images, most students had no difficulty in producing subordinate clauses or in correcting a text with word order errors. Interestingly, the relative clause proved to cause the most problems.The fact that the students were able to produce subordinate clauses, but not able to explain their chosen solution indicates implicit knowledge. This in turn gives reason to believe that students have formed their own natural concepts from experience and not learned a well defined scientific concept. The students in this study could also be seen to represent stages in the concept building process that begins with a category ‘sentence’. Step by step different types of subordinate clauses break loose and form a new category ‘subordinate clause’. With time the attributes become more refined.The analysis of four Swedish grammars of German showed that three of them had content shortcomings, whereas the fourth placed too much emphasis on linguistic correctness which would leave the learners behind.In the last chapter implications for grammar writing and grammar teaching are discussed. One key point is the necessity of opportunities to verbalize your thoughts since this promotes learning / ZusammenfassungHintergrund, Ziel und ForschungsfragenDie übergreifende Frage dieser Arbeit stammt aus meinem Grammatikunterricht an einer schwedischen Universität. In dem Kontakt mit Studenten lässt sich leicht feststellen, dass sie alle individuelle Charakteristika aufweisen – auch was den Erfolg mit den theoretischen Aspekten der Grammatik als auch mit der Anwendung des Wissens. Einige Studenten haben damit große Schwierigkeiten, während andere einigermaßen korrektes Deutsch produzieren können und anscheinend auch verstanden haben, wie die deutsche Sprache aufgebaut ist, wie die grammatischen Begriffe gebildet sind, usw.Ich habe mich dann gefragt, ob vielleicht Grammatiklernen wie Mathematik¬lernen funktioniert und dass die beobachteten Schwierigkeiten auf ein mangelndes Verständnis grundlegender grammatischer Begriffe wie ,Satz‘ und ,Kasus‘ zurückzuführen sind. Nach einer Beschränkung auf ,Satz‘, aber vor allem ,Nebensatz‘ ließen sich folgende Forschungsfragen formulieren:•    Welche Vorstellungen haben schwedischsprachige Deutschstudenten vom Begriff ,Nebensatz‘?•    Wie verhalten sich die Begriffsvorstellungen eines Studenten zu seiner Fähigkeit, korrekte deutsche Nebensätze zu produzieren?Ein wichtiges Hilfsmittel beim Sprachenlernen und -lehren sind Grammatik¬handbücher. Wenn es um Grammatiken für die Schule, didaktische Gram¬matiken, geht, wird immer eine Auswahl vorgenommen und die Darstellung wird auch in anderer Weise den Schülern und ihren vermuteten Vorkenntnissen angepasst. Eine zweite Spur dieser Arbeit gilt solchen Beschreibungen der Struktur des Deutschen, und eine dritte Hauptfrage lautet:•    Wir wird der Begriff ,Nebensatz‘ in schwedischen Grammatiken für den Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache beschrieben?Das Hauptziel der Arbeit ist es, einen Teil der ”Realität” zu erkunden (die Vorstellungen der Studenten von ,Nebensatz‘ und ihre Fähigkeit, solche zu produzieren, sowie Sprachbeschreibungen) und daraus folgernd mögliche Verbesserungen der Sprachbeschreibungen und des Sprachunterrichts  über¬sichtlich zu diskutieren.Theoretischer RahmenGrundlegende Fragen nach Begriffsvorstellungen betreffen kognitive Prozesse und Produkte. Der theoretische Hintergrund dieser Untersuchung setzt sich deshalb zusammen aus einerseits allgemeinen Lerntheorien sowie Theorien zu Begriffsbildung bzw. Begriffsaneignung, andererseits aus Theorien zum Fremdsprachenerwerb: wie lernen wir? Welche Wissensform ist das Ergebnis? Wie verhalten sich Wissen und Performanz zueinander? In den Gesprächen mit Studenten (s. u.) stellte sich aber heraus, dass die Gespräche an sich und die Möglichkeit, Gedanken und Hypothesen zu verbalisieren, oft zum Lernen führten.Material und MethodeMit zwölf Universitätsanfängern des Fachs Deutsch wurde ein kurzer schriftlicher Test und ein anschließendes gesprächsähnliches Interview durch¬geführt. Die Studenten lösten die Aufgaben individuell und waren aufgefordert, dabei laut zu denken. Wenn die verbalisierten Gedanken nicht aufschlussreich genug waren, wurden spezifische Fragen gestellt. Themen des Interviews waren teils Schulerfahrungen und Einstellung zum Sprachenlernen, teils explizite Fragen zu grammatischen Begriffen. Mit drei dieser Informanten wurde dasselbe Verfahren ein Jahr später wiederholt, nach erfolgreichem Abschluss des ersten Studienjahres. Bei dieser Gelegenheit wurden auch retrospektivisch ausgerichtete Fragen zum Lern- und Begriffsbildungsprozess gestellt.ErgebnisseWas die Begriffsvorstellungen betrifft, zeigte sich ein Unterschied je nach dem, ob konkrete Nebensätze zum Anschauen zugänglich waren oder nicht. Waren solche vorhanden, wurde eher auf visuell beobachtbare Charakteristika wie Einleiter und Verbletztstellung hingewiesen. Ohne die Unterstützung durch ein Artefakt standen ein Vergleich oder eine Verbindung mit einem Hauptsatz im Fokus.Eine zweite Beobachtung war, dass die Studenten häufig Merkmale anführten, die als fehlerhaft zu betrachten sind. So glauben viele, das Vorhandensein eines Kommas würde einen Nebensatz verursachen.Eine häufig vorkommende Vorstellung war, dass der Nebensatz immer dem übergeordneten Satz nachgestellt ist und inhaltlich eine Spezifizierung dazu ausmacht. Daraus lässt sich der Schluss ziehen, dass der Relativsatz der proto¬typische Nebensatz ist.Obwohl viele Studenten vage oder sogar fehlerhafte Vorstellungen vom Begriff ,Nebensatz‘ verbalisierten, hatten sie selten Probleme, deutsche Sätze mit korrekter Wortstellung zu produzieren oder Sätze mit inkorrekter Wort¬stellung zu korrigieren. Interessanterweise verursachte dabei gerade der Relativsatz Schwierigkeiten. Die Tatsache, dass die meisten Informanten also Nebensätze produzieren konnten, gleichzeitig aber Schwierigkeiten hatten, ihre Vorstellungen zu verba¬lisieren und die gewählten Lösungen im Test metasprachlich zu begründen, lässt sich als Indiz für implizites Wissen interpretieren. Das wiederum legt den Schluss nahe, dass sie eher von ihren konkreten Erfahrungen ausgehend, d. h. im Kontakt mit gesprochenem und geschriebenem Deutsch einen natürlichen Begriff gebildet haben, als dass sie sich einen fertigen, genau definierten Begriff angeeignet hätten. In diesem Fall ist es demnach nicht notwendig, im Besitz eines wissenschaftlichen Begriffs zu sein.Weiter stellte sich heraus, dass die Informanten dieser Untersuchung als Vertreter für unterschiedliche Phasen des Begriffsbildungsprozesses gesehen werden können. Dabei scheint eine Kategorie ”mening” (,Vollsatz‘) der Aus¬gangspunkt zu sein, aus dem sich schrittweise die verschiedenen Neben¬satztypen losmachen, um die Kategorie ,Nebensatz‘ zu bilden. Die Kenn¬zeichen, Attribute, die diese Mitglieder aufweisen, werden im Prozess zunehmend verfeinert.In den analysierten Grammatiken, die alle in einer ersten oder späteren Auflage in den 1990er Jahren erschienen, ließ sich eine gewisse Entwicklung von einer relativ starken Fokussierung auf Morphologie zu einer ausführlicheren Behandlung der Syntax sowie einer umfangreicheren Diskussion der Begriffe. Bei drei der Grammatiken waren inhaltliche Mängel und undeutliche Formulierungen zu verzeichnen, während die vierte in so hohem Grad eine sprachwissenschaftlich korrekte Beschreibung angestrebt hatte, dass die Anpassung an die Schüler in Frage gestellt werden musste.Didaktische ImplikationenDas abschließende Kapitel der Arbeit umfasst mögliche didaktische Implikationen der Untersuchung für Sprachbeschreibung und Sprachunterricht. Im ersten Fall werden u. a. der Einsatz der Nebensatzeinleiter als Signalwörter sowie der Gebrauch von Visualisierungen fokussiert. Wenn es um Unterricht geht,  werden die soziokulturellen Lerntheorien wieder aufgegriffen, wobei besonders ihre Betonung der Bedeutung des Gesprächs fürs Lernen thematisiert wird. Ferner wird auf die positive Wirkung eines induktiven Verfahrens hingewiesen / SammanfattningBakgrund, syfte och frågeställningarDen övergripande frågan för denna undersökning har uppstått i min under¬visning i tysk grammatik på universitetsnivå. Som vid all annan undervisning, eller kontakt med människor över huvud taget, konstaterar man ganska snart att individerna är olika. I mitt konkreta fall har vissa studenter stora svårigheter med både den teoretiska grammatiken och tillämpningen av den, medan andra både kan producera god tyska och tycks ha förstått hur tyskan är uppbyggd, hur de grammatiska begreppen är bildade och liknande. Inspirerad av forskning inom matematikdidaktik som visat att svårigheter som dyker upp kan bero på att eleverna inte förstått grundläggande begrepp som ’tal’ och ’mängd’ frågade jag mig om förhållandet kunde vara likartat här, dvs. att de som hade svårigheter inte förstått grundläggande begrepp som ’sats’ och ’kasus’. I denna undersökning inskränktes arbetet till att i någon mån behandla begreppet ’sats’ men i huvudsak omfatta begreppet ’bisats’.De konkreta forskningsfrågorna för undersökningen är:•    Vilka föreställningar har svenskspråkiga tyskstudenter av begreppet ’bisats’?•    Hur förhåller sig en students begreppsföreställning(ar) till förmågan att producera korrekta tyska bisatser?Ett viktigt hjälpmedel vid språkinlärning och -undervisning är handböcker i grammatik. När det gäller grammatikor för skolbruk, didaktiska grammatikor, har alltid ett urval gjorts och framställningen har även på annat sätt anpassats till elever och deras förmodade förkunskaper. Ett annat spår i avhandlingen gäller dessa beskrivningar av tyskans struktur och en tredje huvudfråga lyder därför:•    Hur beskrivs begreppet ’bisats’ i svenska skolgrammatikor för tysk¬undervisningen?Huvudsyftet med undersökningen är att ta reda på hur en del av verkligheten ser  ut (studenternas föreställningar om och förmåga att producera bisatser samt språkbeskrivningar) och utifrån detta diskutera hur man eventuellt kan förbättra språkbeskrivning och språkundervisning så att eleverna lär sig både mer och bättre.Teoretisk förankringDe grundläggande frågorna omkring begreppsföreställningar handlar om kognitiva processer och produkter. Den teoretiska bakgrunden till denna under¬sökning utgörs därför dels av teorier kring lärande generellt och kring begreppsbildning respektive begreppstillägnande, dels av teorier kring frågor om hur förvärvandet av ett främmande språk går till, vilken form av kunskap detta leder till samt hur kunskaper och performans hör samman. I samtalen med studenterna (se nedan) visade det sig dock att dessa samtal i sig och möjligheten att verbalisera sina tankar och hypoteser ofta ledde till lärande. Detta för¬hållande är centralt inom sociokulturella lärandeteorier varför även sådana beaktas – inte minst i diskussionerna kring didaktiska implikationer av resultaten.Material och metodFör att få svar på forskningsfrågorna sammanställdes ett kort skriftligt test. Sammanlagt tolv studenter på första terminens universitetsstudier i tyska löste testuppgifterna enskilt och ombads därvid tänka högt och motivera sina lösningar. Vissa specifika frågor kring deras svar ställdes också för att få dem att verbalisera sina föreställningar. I anslutning till testet genomfördes en lite längre semistrukturerad intervju dels kring deras erfarenheter från skolan och inställning till språkundervisning, dels kring grammatiska begrepp. Med tre av dessa studenter upprepades test och intervju ett år senare då de med framgång avslutat ett års studier i tyska. Då ställdes också frågor som syftade till att retrospektivt försöka klargöra hur begreppsbildning och -utveckling går till.Både testdelen och intervjun spelades in på video. Undersökningen bygger således på det skriftliga testet (performans) och transkriptioner av den samtals¬liknande intervjun.ResultatNär det gäller föreställningarna av begreppet ’bisats’ visade det sig att de skiljer sig åt något när studenterna hade konkreta bisatser att hänvisa till eller iaktta och när de bara besvarade frågan om vad en bisats är. I det första fallet var de visuella signalerna bisatsinledare och ordföljd viktiga, medan en jämförelse eller annan koppling till en huvudsats gjordes när inga hjälpande artefakter fanns.Ytterligare en iakttagelse var att studenterna i många fall anförde känne¬tecken hos bisatser som måste anses vara direkt felaktiga. Så tycks flera av dem utgå från att förekomsten av ett komma förorsakar en bisats. En vanlig föreställning var också att en bisats alltid står efter den över¬ordnade satsen och att den innehållsligt innebär en specificering av denna. Av detta kan man dra slutsatsen att relativsatsen är den prototypiska bisatsen. Trots att många studenter hade luddiga eller till och med felaktiga före¬ställningar av begreppet ’bisats’, hade de sällan problem att själva producera tyska bisatser eller korrigera satser med felaktig ordföljd. Intressant nog visade sig relativsatsen förorsaka mest problem i studenternas egna produktion. Det faktum att de flesta informanterna således kunde producera bisatser samtidigt som de hade svårigheter att verbalisera sina föreställningar och att motivera sina lösningar i testet i någon metaspråklig form kan ses som ett tecken på att de besitter implicit kunskap. Det i sin tur kan tolkas som att de utifrån sina konkreta erfarenheter med bisatser, det vill säga genom sin kontakt med tyskan i tal och skrift snarare bildat ett naturligt begrepp än tillägnat sig ett färdigt, väldefinierat begrepp. Att besitta en begreppsföreställning som motsvarar det vetenskapliga är alltså i detta fall inte nödvändigt.Det visade sig också att de studenter som ingår i denna undersökning kan ses som representanter för olika faser i begreppsbildningsprocessen. I denna tycks utgångspunkten vara en kategori ’mening’ från vilken olika bisatstyper stegvis lösgör sig för att bilda kategorin ’bisats’. De kännetecken, attribut, som dessa uppvisar blir med tiden allt mer förfinade.I de analyserade skolgrammatikorna, som alla utgavs i en första eller senare upplaga under olika skeden av 1990-talet, kunde en viss utveckling från en förhållandevis stark fokusering på morfologi i de äldre mot en utförligare behandling av syntax liksom ökad diskussion av begreppen. Tre av gramma¬tikorna kunde sägas uppvisa innehållsliga brister och otydliga formuleringar, medan den fjärde i så hög grad eftersträvat en språkvetenskapligt korrekt beskrivning att anpassningen till eleverna kunde ifrågasättas. Didaktiska implikationerI det avslutande kapitlet diskuteras de didaktiska implikationer som under¬sökningen har eller kan ha för språkbeskrivning och språkundervisning. I det första fallet fokuseras bland annat hur bisatsinledare kan framhävas som signalord och hur visualiseringar kan bidra till framställningen. När det gäller undervisningen återkopplas bland annat till de sociokulturella teorierna och deras betoning av samtalets betydelse för lärandet samt visas på möjligheterna med ett induktivt arbetssätt.

BEZERRA, Cleide Alves Ribeiro. Articulação hipotálica adverbial e argumentação: uma análise do uso das orações concessivas em artigos de opinião e editoriais. 2006. 110f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Linguistica) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Departamento de Letras Vernaculas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Linguística, Fortaleza-CE, 2006. / Submitted by nazareno mesquita (nazagon36@yahoo.com.br) on 2012-07-01T14:23:54Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_diss_CARBezerra.pdf: 666272 bytes, checksum: 5bd43ad1c6799cb58744f9478e868c34 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Maria Josineide Góis(josineide@ufc.br) on 2012-07-25T16:51:46Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_diss_CARBezerra.pdf: 666272 bytes, checksum: 5bd43ad1c6799cb58744f9478e868c34 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2012-07-25T16:51:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_diss_CARBezerra.pdf: 666272 bytes, checksum: 5bd43ad1c6799cb58744f9478e868c34 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / The aim of this work is to investigate the usage of concessive hypotatic clauses involved in the construction of argumentation. Based on functional theories, we analyzed the syntactic aspects, the textual-discursive aspects and the textual-semantic aspects that are associated to the usage of the concessive subordinate clause involved in the construction of argumentation in newspaper articles and editorials. We observed that the syntactic aspects of concessive subordinate clause are related to the pragmatic aspects. Thus the concessive subordinate clause position (before or after main clause or embedded clause) shows the way a speaker decides to organize her utterance due to communication purposes; hence it is connected to discursive functions. We observed that in newspaper articles and editorials, the concessive clause position before or after main clause is not relevant. Our investigation shows that few conjunctions tend to introduce concessive subordinate clause before main clause, for instance apesar de and por mais/menos que, whereas other concessive conjunctions tend to introduce subordinate clause after main clause, for example mesmo que. In the corpus, the conjunction embora is as frequent in concessive clauses before main clause as in concessive clauses after main clauses. As regards the textual-semantic aspects, we observed, besides the concessive inferences, other inferences such as condition and inclusion inferences. In an analysis based on the interpretation domains proposed by Sweetser (1999), we found, in newspaper articles and editorials, that the greater number of examples allows an interpretation in the epistemic domain, but there is a meaningful number of examples that lead to a possible interpretation in the content domain, probably this is due to the fact that newspapers genres are related to social happenings and facts. Regarding concessive clause types we observed, in the corpus analyzed, that the factual concessive clauses predominate. When we verified the textual-discursive aspects, we observed, that concessive subordinate clauses are used as main clause background and when they are placed after main clause they often represent an evaluation or an addendum to main clause, whereas concessive clause before main clause and embedded concessive clause work as a topic to a nuclear information or as a way to attain discursive cohesion. As regards the argumentative role of concessive clause in newspaper articles and editorials, we observed concessive subordinate clause represents an important strategy; through concessive clause, the author presupposes an objection on the part of the reader and he declares that the objection does not hinder the content expressed in the main clause. / O presente trabalho investiga o uso da articulação hipotática adverbial concessiva na construção da argumentação. Com base nos pressupostos funcionalistas, analisamos, de um modo integrado, os aspectos sintáticos, textual-semânticos e textual-discursivos associados ao uso da oração concessiva na construção da argumentação em artigos de opinião e editoriais. Verificamos que os aspectos sintáticos da articulação da oração concessiva estão relacionados aos aspectos pragmáticos. Dessa forma, a posição da oração concessiva (anteposição, posposição e intercalação) reflete a maneira como o falante decide organizar seu discurso em virtude do propósito comunicativo; portanto, está ligada às funções discursivas a que se presta. Assim, verificamos que, nos artigos de opinião e editoriais, a diferença na freqüência do uso da anteposição e da posposição não foi significativa. Em nossa investigação, alguns conectores tendem a introduzir orações concessivas antepostas é o caso de apesar de e por mais/menos que, enquanto outros tendem a introduzir orações concessivas pospostas é o caso de mesmo que. A conjunção embora apareceu, no corpus em análise, com a mesma freqüência em orações antepostas e pospostas. Quanto aos aspectos textual-semânticos, percebemos que, da articulação das orações ditas concessivas, além da inferência de concessão, emergem também outras inferências, tais como condição e inclusão. A partir de uma análise pautada nos domínios de interpretação propostos por Sweetser (1999), constatamos que, nos gêneros em estudo, a maioria das ocorrências permite leitura no domínio epistêmico, mas há um número significativo de ocorrências com a possibilidade de leitura no domínio de conteúdo, provavelmente porque os gêneros jornalísticos abordam acontecimentos, fatos sociais. Com relação ao tipo de oração concessiva, verificamos que, no corpus em análise, predominam as do tipo factual. Ao investigarmos os aspectos textual-discursivos, percebemos que, de uma maneira geral, as orações concessivas são usadas como fundo da oração nuclear e que, quando pospostas, geralmente constituem uma avaliação ou um adendo à oração nuclear; enquanto as antepostas e as intercaladas funcionam como tópico/guia para a informação núcleo ou como fator de coesão discursiva. Quanto ao papel argumentativo da oração concessiva em artigos de opinião e editoriais, percebemos que esta representa uma relevante estratégia por meio da qual o autor, pressupondo uma objeção por parte do leitor, declara que tal objeção não impedirá nem modificará o conteúdo expresso na oração nuclear.

This theses is dedicated to the use of the verbal paradigms hablara and hablase in contemporary Spanish. We demonstrate that due to historical reasons the usage of paradigm hablara is much wider than that of hablase, which can be used only in the subjunctive meaning. According to the valid linguistic norm, the paradigm hablara (and not hablase) can be used instead of the Past Perfect (although it is not recommended). The same is evidenced with the conditional tense of the modal verbs querer, deber and poder as well as with the main clause of the unreal conditional clauses in the present tense. This means that these two verb paradigms can be arbitralily substituted only when used in the subjunctive function. On the basis of our own frecuency analysis of twenty most used Spanish verbs in the language corpus CREA, we prove that the frecuency of the hablase on average 18% in Spain and 10% in Latin America. Our analysis of this corpus material does not confirm the statement of some linguists that the frecuency of -se form is generally slightly higher in negative sentences. However, our analysis of a parallel corpus InterCorp seems to indicate that it is higher (by 7%) after the conditional conjunction ‚si'.

The aim of this study is to investigate the syntax in Finnish literature for young people in order to arrive at fundamental information about the character of the language in literature of this kind. The corpus consists of three Tiina books by Anni Polva. My method is mainly quantitative, but also comparative. The language of the three books is compared, but the results of this comparison are also contrasted with other Finnish and also Swedish quantitative linguistic investigations. The investigation begins at the sentence and clause levels. To some extent is also considered whether syntactic features occur in main clauses or in subordinate clauses, in narrative text or in dialogues. The length of sentences and clauses is investigated. It appears that the length of sentences stated in clauses (2.2 clauses on averige) and the length of clauses in words (5 words on averige) do not differ from those typical of literature for children or adults. On the other hand the length of sentences stated in words (11 words on averige) is somewhat higher than in literature for children and adults. Active and passive clauses, mode, tense and negation in the clauses are investigated. The results show that the frequency of active clauses is high and the frequency of passive clauses is very low. The frequency of negated clauses is also very high. The most frequent mode is the indicative, followed by the conditional. There are few predicates in the imperative, and there are only isolated instances of predicates in the potential. The use of tenses resembles that in literature for children and adults: most predicates are in the past tense, followed by the present, the pluperfect and the perfect. Main clauses and subordinate clauses of different kinds are dealt with in the investigation. The proportion between main clauses and subordinate clauses is about the same as in the spoken language. The coordinating as well as the subordinating conjunctions are investigated both with regard to the actual occurrences of the conjunctions and with regard to their meanings. The most frequent coordi­nating conjunctions are ja 'and* (55.8 %) and multa 'but' (21.4 %). The classification of the conjunctions according to meaning shows that copulative conjunctions are the most frequent ones (50.7 %). Of the subordinating conjunctions että 'that' (35.7 %) and kun 'when, because' (25.0 %) are the most frequent ones. Semantically explicative conjunctions are the most frequent subordinating conjunctions (27.6 %). Syndetic coordination is most frequent in main clauses (78.8 %) as well as in subordinate clauses (98.9 %). Asyndetic coordination is clearly used as a stylistic device. A large number of different constructions are used in the corpus. Some of them are contracted clauses, some are other constructions which resemble them. The frequency of these constructions is unexpectedly high. The most frequent types of contracted clause are the necessive construction (47.9 %), the participle construction (18.3 %) and the temporal construction (15.3 %). Of the other constructions the modal construction (60.4 %) and the agent construction (12.8 %) are the most frequent ones. The structure of the sentences in the Tiina books is varied and sometimes complex. In all there are 167 different combinations of clauses in the corpus. The most frequent type of sentence consists of one main clause (27.8 %). In the combination of clauses we also find clauses with different degrees of subordination. Grade 1 is the most frequent one (87.1 %). However, there are even instances of grade 4. The position of main clauses and subordinate clauses varies a great deal. They may be mixed at will. The corpus contains a large number of clause combinations which occur once only. / digitalisering@umu

Denna studie undersöker om det finns en korrelation mellan elevers förväntade språkutveckling och läroböckers språkliga komplexitet från grundskola till gymnasienivå. Uppsatsen tar avstamp i Skolverkets lärandemål och forskning om hur elever utvecklar sitt språk. I undersökningen jämförs representativa texter från två olika läroböcker i svenska, dels från grundskolans år 9, dels från svenska 2 på gymnasienivå. Parametrarna som undersöks är LIX-värde, nominalkvot, fundamentslängd och -variation och slutligen bisatstyper och -frekvens. Sammantaget ger dessa olika mått en god grund för att analysera den språkliga komplexiteten. Resultaten påvisar att det finns ett visst mått av skillnad i den språkliga komplexiteten som påverkar läsbarheten mellan årskurserna. Både lärobokstexternas LIX-värde och nominalkvot motsvarar i stort varandra, med undantag för genomsnittlig meningslängd, vari gymnasietexternas meningslängd överskrider grundskolans dito. Bisatsfrekvenserna, det vill säga fördelningen av bisatstyper, och fundamentslängd skiljer sig åt mellan årskurserna. Slutsatsen beträffande graden av språklig komplexitet för texterna är att det finns en viss progression från den lägre årskursen till den högre. Enligt gängse forskning styrks elevernas förmåga att skriva svårare texter genom konsumtion av lärobokstexter som både är språkligt något mer komplexa och längre, vilket läroplanen föreskriver.

My thesis deals with the word order in the contemporary Czech language. The aim is to discover the principles that control the clause order within sentences and to find out to what extent the position of the main and subordinate clauses is fixed. The first section summarizes the work of Czech and Slovak linguists and introduces the principles that apply to the clause order in particular sentences. It defines types of sentences with fixed, usual and loose order. At the end of this part there is an overview of the positions of different types of clauses, which became the springboard for the empirical part. The second section deals with the clause order of selected subordinate sentences. I have chosen a representative sample of connecting expressions. Using materials of the Czech National Corpus I try to outline the contemporary Czech clause order of the most frequent types of clauses following these expressions.

nÃo hà / Investiga o custo de processamento de sentenÃas coordenadas e de sentenÃas subordinadas em um grupo de estudantes do 9 ano do Ensino Fundamental (EF). Em Engelkamp e Rummer (2002) e Rummer, Engelkamp e Konieczny (2003), observou-se que o processamento de sentenÃas subordinadas à menos custoso do que o de sentenÃas coordenadas em tarefas de memorizaÃÃo. Os resultados de Rummer, Engelkamp e Konieczny (2003) tambÃm sugeriram que o deslocamento da sentenÃa subordinada interfere nos custos de processamento. Tais achados entram em confronto com impressÃes do autor derivadas do exercÃcio da prÃtica docente de ensino de conjunÃÃes subordinadas ao 9 ano do EF, o que culminou para a proposiÃÃo desta pesquisa. Foram elaborados experimentos cuja previsÃo era a de que os estudantes teriam mais dificuldade de ler sentenÃas subordinadas, uma dificuldade decorrente do pouco conhecimento da relaÃÃo lÃgica veiculada pelas conjunÃÃes. Dada a variabilidade das relaÃÃes lÃgicas e o escasso tempo de execuÃÃo desta pesquisa, foram investigadas aqui apenas as relaÃÃes de oposiÃÃo e concessÃo. Para tanto, foram propostos trÃs experimentos de rastreamento ocular. O primeiro investigou o custo de processamento de leitura da estrutura subordinada deslocada; o segundo comparou o custo de processamento de leitura de sentenÃas coordenadas e subordinadas; e o terceiro observou o peso de quatro diferentes conjunÃÃes em oraÃÃes coordenadas. Foram produzidos 24 itens experimentais, compostos de condiÃÃes, que contemplavam em conjunto os trÃs experimentos supracitados: quatro oraÃÃes subordinadas, sendo duas sem e duas com deslocamento, que faziam uso das conjunÃÃes âemboraâ e âainda queâ; quatro oraÃÃes coordenadas, que faziam uso das conjunÃÃes âentretantoâ, âmasâ, âno entantoâ e âeâ. Seguia-se a todas as frases uma pergunta de controle de atenÃÃo. Participaram dos experimentos 42 estudantes do 9 ano do EF e 40 adultos leitores proficientes. As medidas observadas foram o tempo total de leitura nas sentenÃas completas e o tempo de primeira leitura na sentenÃa/perÃodo completo. Para o experimento 1 (deslocamento da subordinada), na medida de primeira leitura, encontrou-se uma interaÃÃo entre grupo e deslocamento (F = 4,06, p = 0.04), alÃm de efeito principal para deslocamento (p < 0.001), mas nÃo houve efeito de grupo. Para a medida de tempo total, foi encontrado apenas efeito principal de grupo (p < 0.001). Para o estudo do processamento da coordenaÃÃo e subordinaÃÃo (experimento 2), foram encontrados efeitos principais de grupo para a primeira leitura e o tempo total de leitura (p = 0.04 e p < 0.001). E no estudo das conjunÃÃes coordenativas, observou-se diferenÃa significativa para cada conjunÃÃo na primeira leitura (p = 0.006), mas nÃo no tempo total de leitura. Houve diferenÃa significativa no tempo total de leitura para o grupo (p < 0.001). Os resultados sugerem que o grupo de estudantes là de modo diferente e mais lentamente do que o grupo de adultos, mas essa medida nÃo à sensÃvel Ãs sentenÃas coordenadas e subordinadas. Jà o deslocamento da subordinada para a posiÃÃo inicial da sentenÃa gera maior custo de processamento para os estudantes, sugerindo que a aprendizagem escolar deste tema tem relevÃncia para o encapsulamento da informaÃÃo do perÃodo subordinado. Para o estudo das conjunÃÃes, observou-se que a primeira leitura à sensÃvel ao tamanho da conjunÃÃo, pois a conjunÃÃo âeâ tem um tempo de processamento mais rÃpido no tempo total de leitura, diferenciando-se da conjunÃÃo âmasâ, que apresenta relaÃÃo adversativa explÃcita dada sua frequÃncia de uso. / Investigates if the cost of the processing of coordinate clauses is higher than the cost of the processing of subordinate clauses in a group of 9th grade students. In Engelkamp and Rummer (2002) and Rummer, Engelkamp and Konieczny (2003), it was observed that the processing of subordinate clauses is less costly than the coordinate ones in tasks of memorization, as suggested that the displacement of the subordinate clause influences the costs of the processing. Such results were confronted with the exercise of teaching subordinate conjunctions to 9th graders, which ended up with the proposal of this research. The expectation is that the students would have more difficulties in reading subordinate clauses due to the lack of knowledge of the logical relation served by the conjunction. Given the variability of the logical relations and the lack of time for the execution of this research, we could investigate only the relations of opposition and concession. To do so, three experiments of eye tracking were developed: (i) the first one investigated the cost of reading processing of subordinate clause displacement; (ii) the second one compared the reading process of coordinate and subordinate clauses; (iii) and the third one observed the importance of four different conjunctions in coordinate clauses. Twenty-four experimental items, made up of conditions, were created, which contemplated, all together, the three experiments listed above: four subordinate clauses, two without and two with displacement, which used the conjunctions âemboraâ (although) and âainda queâ (even if); four coordinate clauses, which used the conjunctions âentretantoâ (however), âmasâ (but), âno entantoâ (yet) and âeâ (and). A question of control of attention followed all clauses. Forty-two 9th graders and forty proficient adult readers participated in the experiment. The observed measurements were the total time of reading of the complete clauses, and the time of the first reading in the complete sentence/clause. For experiment one (subordinate displacement), measuring the first reading, an interaction between group and displacement was found (F=4,06, p = 0.04), besides the main effect for displacement (p<0.001), but group effect was not observed. For total time measurement, only main group effect was found (p<0.001). For the study of the processing of the coordinate and subordinate clauses (experiment two), main group effects were found for the first reading and the total reading time (p=0.04 e p<0.001). In the study of coordinate conjunctions, we observed an important difference for each conjunction in the first reading (p=0.006), but not in the total time of reading. There was significant difference in the total time of reading for the group (p<0.001). The results suggest that the group of students read in a different way and more slowly than the adult group, but this measurement is nor sensitive to coordinate and subordinate clauses. However, the displacement of the subordinate clause to the front position of the sentence generates a higher cost of processing for the students, suggesting that the school learning of this topic is relevant for the coating of the information in the subordinate clause. For the study of the conjunctions, it was observed that the first reading is sensitive to the length of the conjunction, because the conjunction âeâ (and) has a time of processing faster in the total time of the reading, which is quite different from the conjunction âmasâ (but), which shows clear adversative relationship given its frequency of use.