Le XVIIe siècle a vu l'avènement de la domination des marines anglaise et française. La France et l'Angleterre se sont disputées le contrôle des voies maritimes en Méditerranée qui était alors le coeur stratégique du commerce mondial et de l'approvisionnement, mais également le théâtre de conflits entre les différentes flottes. Il est en effet nécessaire pour contrôler la Méditerranée d'intervenir dans les affaires intérieures des États du bassin méditerranéen, et c'est pour atteindre ce but que les Européens cherchèrent à consolider leurs relations avec l'empire ottoman, qui contrôlait les Régences d'Afrique du Nord, et bien évidemment celles aussi qu'ils entretenaient avec Tripoli. Les relations franco-tripolitaines se sont établies grâce à une activité diplomatique intense, renforcée par les multiples communications entre les deux pays surtout à l'époque de Youssef Pacha où le gouvernement français a joué un rôle important dans la vie politique et économique à Tripoli. La France considérait cette action diplomatique comme un moyen efficace pour maintenir la sécurité de ses navires au large des côtes de cet État, qui était l'un des plus puissants de la Méditerranée durant cette période. Tripoli constituait aussi pour la France un pont pour les échanges commerciaux. Le règne de Youssef Pacha est aussi marqué par un élément qui a valorisé Tripoli aux yeux de la France : la progression des découvertes géographiques en Afrique. La France et l'Angleterre étaient, là aussi, en compétition pour pénétrer à l'intérieur du continent noir à partir de Tripoli. De plus, Tripoli joua un rôle important au cours des conflits entre la France et l'Angleterre, en particulier au moment de l'expédition d'Égypte et pendant les guerres napoléoniennes. Tous ces facteurs ont contribué à la création d'un niveau élevé de relations diplomatiques et économiques entre les deux pays qui se sont construites grâce à un esprit de coopération et en dépit de nombreuses difficultés.

West Wales in the Iron Age contained a diverse range of settlement types, from hill-forts to unenclosed farmsteads, with the dominant type of settlement the enclosed farmstead. However, a recent review of information available for the British Iron Age identified a relative lack of systematised information for Wales and consequently there is a pressing need to re-examine the settlement record for this area, as the belief in a single Iron Age "culture" gives way to recognition of regional difference in material cultures, social institutions and life-ways. This thesis examines the settlements and landscape of West Wales in an attempt to contribute to our understanding of this region in the Iron Age. In order to make a regionally synthesised investigation of the social, I conducted a survey of excavation and survey information for Iron Age settlements in West Wales. Analysis centred on examining the spatial patterning of settlements by considering the morphology, distribution, placement and structure of settlements, their place in the landscape and regional trends in the structuring of space and artefacts. The investigation was contextualised within the wider body of material for the Iron Age in Britain. The use of landscape theory as an interpretive framework in examining the spatial patterning of the material culture in the Iron Age proved an effective method for interpreting domestic settlements within the lived landscape. Social and cosmological relations within settlements and within the referential structuring of a landscape, particularly with respect to pre-existing monuments, were suggested by the analysis. By comparing these trends in the structuring of settlements within the landscape to settlements elsewhere in Britain, a distinct and regional culture for the Iron Age of West Wales was identified.

West Wales in the Iron Age contained a diverse range of settlement types, from hill-forts to unenclosed farmsteads, with the dominant type of settlement the enclosed farmstead. However, a recent review of information available for the British Iron Age identified a relative lack of systematised information for Wales and consequently there is a pressing need to re-examine the settlement record for this area, as the belief in a single Iron Age "culture" gives way to recognition of regional difference in material cultures, social institutions and life-ways. This thesis examines the settlements and landscape of West Wales in an attempt to contribute to our understanding of this region in the Iron Age. In order to make a regionally synthesised investigation of the social, I conducted a survey of excavation and survey information for Iron Age settlements in West Wales. Analysis centred on examining the spatial patterning of settlements by considering the morphology, distribution, placement and structure of settlements, their place in the landscape and regional trends in the structuring of space and artefacts. The investigation was contextualised within the wider body of material for the Iron Age in Britain. The use of landscape theory as an interpretive framework in examining the spatial patterning of the material culture in the Iron Age proved an effective method for interpreting domestic settlements within the lived landscape. Social and cosmological relations within settlements and within the referential structuring of a landscape, particularly with respect to pre-existing monuments, were suggested by the analysis. By comparing these trends in the structuring of settlements within the landscape to settlements elsewhere in Britain, a distinct and regional culture for the Iron Age of West Wales was identified.

The social transformations in the South Levantine Neolithic show two basic tendencies: 1) complex social structures are replaced by less complex ones, before more complex social structures develop; and 2) most likely connected to that: heterarchical and hierarchical patterns are linked together in varying ways; the more needs for social regulation appear, the more heterarchical elements trigger corporate, hierarchical and central structures, and new sedentary types of conflict occur. The development of family and communal life modes moved as shifting waves through the ecozones of the southern Levant: core household structures (MPPNB) are replaced by corporate extended families households (LPPNB) which then again are replaced by core household structures (FPPNB-PNA-B); heterarchical communities (PPNA) get replaced by hierarchical (MPPNB-LPPNB) communities, before pastoral-heterarchical communities develop (FPPNB-PNA-B) and exist together with the hierarchical permanent settlements of the FPPNB-PNA-B. The qualities and momentum of this general development may differ according to regional ecological conditions, including reversible and conservative regional developments. / Las transformaciones sociales del Neolítico en el Levante meridional denotan dos tendencias básicas: 1) las estructuras sociales complejas son reemplazadas por otras de características menos elaboradas en una etapa previa al despliegue de estructuras sociales más complejas, y 2) probablemente en forma paralela, se entrelazan principios heterárquicos y jerárquicos del orden social en proporciones cambiantes. Con la creciente demanda de una regulación de los elementos heterárquicos, estos desaparecen para ser sustituidos por estructuras jerárquicas corporativas y centrales, por lo que aparecen nuevas formas sedentarias de conflicto. El desarrollo de las formas de vida familiares y comunales atravesó, a manera de olas consecutivas, los diferentes paisajes del Levante meridional: estructuras familiares nucleares (en el PPNB Medio) fueron reemplazadas por estructuras familiares extensas corporativas (PPNB Tardío) y volvieron, luego, a su estado inicial (PPNB Final a PNA-B). Las comunidades heterárquicas (PPNA) se convirtieron en jerárquicas (PPNB Medio a PPNB Tardío) antes del surgimiento de comunidades heterárquicas pastoriles (PPNB Final a PNA-B) que coexistieron, en forma paralela, con asentamientos jerárquicos permanentes (PPNB Final a PNA-B). Las cualidades y la velocidad de este proceso general dependen, en forma especial, de factores ecológicos regionales e incluyen desarrollos regionales de carácter tanto reversible como conservador.

Southern Turkey’s Amuq Valley has been described as a point of convergence bridging distant regions within the ancient Near East. Through an in depth techno-typological and chemical characterization study of 290 obsidian artefacts, this research details changes in deep-time patterns of obsidian use from the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age (6000 BCE – 2400 BCE), arguing that shifting traditions of consumption reflect socio-economic developments both within and beyond the Northern Levant. These artefacts come from the three sites of Tell al-Judaidah, Tell Dhahab and Tell Kurdu, the material excavated during the 1930’s by the University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute. Methodologically raw material sourcing was achieved using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (EDXRF) in the well-established McMaster XRF Lab [MAX Lab]. With these artefacts’ raw materials all being exotic to the Amuq Valley, originating from various outcrops in Cappadocia, the Lake Van region and Transcaucasia (Turkey and Armenia), over 1000km away, this study not only offers new insight into how Amuq Valley communities engaged in long-distance relations, but also contributes to a larger, deep-time regional study of obsidian consumption as a proxy for understanding significant shifts in Near Eastern socio-economics, from hunter-gatherers to the earliest states. In turn, this study, by employing an Annales school framework to consider practice over deep time at the local and supra-regional level further contributes to an ‘archaeology of the long-term’. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA) / This research involved the chemical analysis of 290 artefacts of archaeological obsidian – a naturally occurring substance made of crystallized lava - as a means of studying ancient exchange systems in the Near East. More specifically, this study covers archaeological periods from 6000 B.C.E. (Late Neolithic) to 2400 B.C.E. (Early Bronze Age) in the Amuq Valley region of southern Turkey. These artefacts were procured during excavations under the Oriental Institute Museum (University of Chicago) beginning in the 1930s. All artefacts are exotic to the Amuq Valley from several known obsidian outcrops in Anatolia (Turkey), some over 1000km away. Analysis was conducted using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to match each artefact to its geological origin thereby identifying the range of exotic materials were exchanged across long-distances. The goal of this research was to uncover social and/or economic dynamics of the Amuq Valley through deep-time with regards to the greater obsidian trade network of the Near East.

Avec l’avènement de l’Empire romain au cours du premier siècle avant notre ère le Levant devient le théâtre d’un cosmopolitisme où maintes cultures hétéroclites vont coexister. Ce nouveau système a Rome comme Caput Mundi. Des voies vont être tracées par l’armée jusqu’au fin fond de l’empire pour relier le monde à sa capitale. Les fouilles préventives récentes (depuis 2005) à Berytus (Beyrouth) et à Botrys (Batroun) ont mis au jour une quantité considérable de données inédites sur l’homme et sur les populations qui vivaient dans la région durant les quatre siècles de l’Empire romain et jusqu’au début du Christianisme. À partir d’une étude archéo‐anthropologique de huit ensembles funéraires (n=290) provenant de la Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus et de la ville de Botrys qui contrairement à Berytus n’a pas le statut de colonia romana, ce travail propose de contribuer à l’histoire de ces deux villes. Notre but est d’appréhender les populations du passé d’après l’étude du squelette, les caractéristiques biologiques, les rituels et les pratiques funéraires ainsi que l’organisation des espaces sépulcraux. Cette étude révèle en premier lieu un cosmopolitisme culturel et biologique illustré par la variabilité des pratiques funéraires et par la diversité biologique des deux ou plusieurs groupes qui ont dû coexister à la Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus. Par contre, les données bio-culturelles de Botrys évoquent quant à elles, une cité moins cosmopolite, moins diversifiée sur les plans anthropologiques et culturels. En effet, la ressemblance des modes d’inhumation, du traitement du corps, du mobilier funéraire et la structuration de l’espace funéraire et l’homogénéité biologique sont incontestables à Botrys. En revanche, les analyses comparatives entre Berytus et Botrys ont mis en évidence une hétérogénéité biologique existante à plusieurs échelles entre les individus des deux villes. Cependant cette distance est brisée par l’homogénéité du corpus féminin des deux villes pour la période qui s'étend du IIème au IVème siècle de notre ère. / During the first century B.C., with the rise of the Roman Empire, the Levant became the scene of cosmopolitanism where many heteroclite cultures would coexist. The new cosmopolitan society had Rome as its capital (Caput Mundi), and roads drawn up by the army linking the rest of the empire to its capital. Recent rescue excavations (since 2005) in Berytus (Beirut) and Botrys (Batroun) have revealed a considerable amount of unpublished data on populations who lived in the region during the four centuries of the Roman Empire until the early centuries of Christianity. Following an archaeo-anthropological approach, this thesis presents an assessment of eight funerary sites (n= 290) from the cities of Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus and Botrys. Significantly, Botrys, unlike Berytus, did not have the status of a Roman colony. This research seeks to contribute to the history of these two cities. The purpose is to understand the populations of the past through the study of the skeletons, rituals and funerary practices as well as the organisation of funerary spaces. This study primarily reveals a cultural and biological cosmopolitanism illustrated by variability in funerary practices and in biological characteristics. These results suggest that at least two different groups or more coexisted in the Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus. On the contrary, the biocultural data of Botrys skeletons reveal a less cosmopolitan city with less diversity shown on different anthropological and cultural levels. Indeed, the similarity of funerary practices, body treatments, grave goods and the organisation of the funerary space and biological homogeneity are indisputable in Botrys. Comparative analysis between Berytus and Botrys highlighted an existing biological heterogeneity at different scales between individuals of both cities. However, this diversity is contradicted by the homogeneity of the females of both cities during the 2th and the 4th century A. D. / أصبح المشرق خلال القرن الاول قبل الميلاد، مع صعود الامبراطورية الرومانية، مسرحاً عالمياً تتفاعل فيه ثقافات مختلفة. ثقافات لطالما ميزت المشرق بسبب الغزوات واختلاط الشعوب منذ العصر الحجري الحديث. النظام العالمي الجديد جعل روما "عاصمة العالم" أو كما يقال باللاتينية Caput Mundi وبذلك رسم الجيش الروماني الطرق الى مختلف أصقاع الامبراطورية لتؤدي الى روما. كشفت الحفريات الوقائية و الإنقاذية الأخيرة في بيروت والبترون عن معطيات جديدة تخص الشعوب التي عاشت في المنطقة خلال القرون الأربعة من الإمبراطورية الرومانية وحتى بدايات المسيحية. تقدم رسالة الدكتوراه هذه دراسة عن الإنسان وعلاقاته مع الموت. وباتباع منهج أثري-أنثروبولوجي ستقدم تقييماً لثمان مواقع مدفنية في كولونيا جوليا أوغوستا فيليكس بيريتوس Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus ومدينة البترون (ع=٢٩٠ ) والتي على عكس بيريتوس )بيروت) لم تحمل صفة مستوطنة رومانية .تقدم هذه الدراسة في المقام الأول الاطار الثقافي والبيولوجي والمشروحين بتعدد الطقوس المدفنية والاختلاف البيولوجي لمجموعتين او اكثر من المجموعات التي تعيش في كولونيا جوليا أوغوستا فيليكس بيريتوس. في المقابل المعطيات البيولوجية الثقافية في البترون تدل على أنها مدينة أقل تنوعاً ولا تحوي تنوعات انثروبولوجية وثقافية كبيرة. لذلك فإن التطابق في طرق الدفن وتحضير الموتى وأمكنة الدفن والتجانس البيولوجي هي مسائل لاجدال فيها بالنسبة للبترون. وبالمقارنة مابين بيروت والبترون من الواضح عدم التجانس البيولوجي الموجود على أكثر من صعيد فيما بين سكان المدينتين.ولكن هذا التباين مابين المدينتين مخترق من قبل تشابه الإناث في كلا المدينتين من القرن الثاني الى القرن الرابع ميلادي.

Tell Aswad, situé à environ 30km à l’Est / Sud-Est de Damas, est un grand tell d’environ 6 hectares dont la hauteur maximale ne dépasse pas de 4,50 m la grande plaine lacustre qui l’entoure. Le site de Tell Aswad datant entièrement du Néolithique Précéramique B (entre 8200 et 7500 av. J.-C.) est un site de référence du Levant Central. Ces populations, complètement agriculteurs/éleveurs, montrent des liens entre les populations et les cultures du Levant Nord et Sud. Les niveaux attribués à l’horizon PPNB ancien, période mal connue au Levant Sud, lui donne une grande importance historique au niveau régional. Ainsi, ce site offre une documentation rare qui peut être utilisées dans la recherche des origines du PPNB dans la région et les identités culturelles qui lui correspondent. Il nous a offert une riche documentation sur les pratiques funéraires. Répartis sur presque la totalité de son occupation, plus de 119 individus ont été exhumés. Les résultats nous indiquent la présence d’une continuité diachronique des pratiques funéraires tout au long de l’occupation, celles-ci étant originaire d’une tradition ancestrale. Elles révèlent le recours aux funérailles uniques mais se spécifient par des funérailles multiples, à travers le prélèvement des crânes. Chacun de ces deux modèles résulterait d’un choix imposé et sélectif issu du système social (hiérarchisé), indiquant la manière dont le défunt doit être inhumé. Les différents traitements des crânes prélevés, dont le surmodelage, correspondraient à des « rituelles» et pratiques funéraires hautement culturalisées. Elles témoignent de l’ordre social et de l’intégrité du groupe et matérialisent l’un des traits majeurs de l’identité culturels des sociétés Néolithiques du PPNB à Tell Aswad. L’étude de l’organisation spatiale des sépultures au cours de l’occupation PPNB de Tell Aswad, révèle un changement des lieux d’inhumations, depuis l’inhumation dans des maisons, à l’intérieur de la cellule familiale, jusqu’à la conception de lieux spécifiques dédiés aux pratiques funéraires. L’organisation spatiale de ces lieux devient pour nous une source supplémentaire témoignant de l’organisation sociale dans ce site. / Tell Aswad, located 30 km East/South-East of Damascus, is a nearly 6 hectares tell not exceeding 4,5 meters height above the great lacustrian plain surrounding. The whole stratigraphy of the site dates from PPNB (8200-7500 B.C.), it's a reference site for the Central Levant because of the farmer/cattle breeder population showing connections between Southern and Northern Levant. The ancient PPNB levels, poorly understood in South Levant, give to the site an important historical status on a regional level. Thus, Tell Aswad offers us a rare documentation used for a better understanding of the PPNB period origins in the area and the cultural identities corresponding. The data are especially rich for the funeral practices. More than 119 individuals have been excavated spread on the entire occupation. Our results indicate the presence of a diachronic continuity of the funeral practices throughout the occupation due to an ancestral tradition. They reveal the use of simple burials but also specificity in the multiple burials by means of the skull withdrawal. Both models result from a selective choice imposed by the social system (hierarchical), indicating how the deceased had to be buried. The variability inside the skull treatment including the modeled skulls correspond to "ritual" and funerary practices highly culturalized. They reflect a social order and a group integrity materializing one of the major feature of the cultural identity of Neolithic PPNB society in Tell Aswad. Studying the spatial organization of the burials during the PPNB occupation of Tell Aswad reveals changes in burial sites, from burials in the house inside the family unit until the creation of specific area dedicated to funerary practices. The spatial organization of these areas becomes for our research a supplementary testimony of the social organization in the site.

The thesis looks at Protestant missions to the Ottoman Empire and the countries which emerged from it through Bosch's "Enlightenment missionary" (2003) and Huntington's "Clash of Civilizations" (1996) paradigms. It argues that Muslim resistance to Christianity is rooted in innate Muslim intransigence and in specific historical events in which missionaries played important roles. The work utilizes a simple formula: it contrasts the socio-political and cultural framework missionaries imbibed at home with that of their host environment, outlines the goals and strategies they formulated and implemented, looks at the results, and notes the missiological implications. The formula is applied to four successive periods. We begin with the pre-World War I missionaries of the late Ottoman Empire. We look at their faith in reason, their conviction in the cultural superiority of Anglo-Saxon Protestantism, their attitude towards Islam, their idea of reaching the Muslim majority by reviving the Orthodox churches, and the evolution of their theology and missiology. World War I changed the landscape. The Empire's demise led to a struggle for Turkish and Arab national self-determination leading to the establishment of the Turkish Republic and various Arab entities, notably French and British mandates. Protestant missions almost disappeared in Turkey, while a small number of "veterans" kept the enterprise alive in the Arab world. While the Arabs struggled to liberate themselves from the Mandatory Powers, these veterans analyzed past failures, recognized the importance of reaching Muslims directly and began experimenting with more contextualized approaches. The post-World War II era saw the retreat of colonialism, the creation of Israel, a succession of wars with that country, and the formation of a Palestinian identity. Oil enabled the Arabian Peninsula to emerge as a major economic and political force. The missionary enterprise, on the other hand, virtually collapsed. Unlike their veteran predecessors, the pre-Boomer generation, with a few notable exceptions, was bereft of fresh ideas. During the 1970s the evangelical Baby Boomers launched a new enterprise. They tended not to perceive themselves as heirs of a heritage going back to the 1800s, though the people they "targeted" did. Their successors, the GenXers, products of post-modernism and inheritors of Boomer structures, face a region experiencing both increased political frustration and the re-emergence of Islam as a socio-political power. In closing we look at Church-centered New Testament spirituality as a foundational paradigm for further missions to the region. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / D. Th. (Missiology)

This paper analyses the opposing views regarding the presence or absence of the Sikil at Dor in Palestine during Early Iron Age 1. Textual sources claim that the Sikil were pirates who came from the west and settled in Cyprus. Egyptian sources point to a Sikil presence at Dor. Some scholars regard the Egyptian sources and archaeological finds at Dor as evidence of a Sikil settlement at Dor. Others maintain that there is a continuity of ceramics at Dor from Canaanite to Phoenician. Though there were foreign influences at Dor during Early Iron Age 1 which point to newcomers, they propose that these newcomers probably came from Cyprus. No archaeological record of a Sea People-presence at Dor has been discovered. This study textually traces the Sikil from the Aegean to Cyprus, Egypt and finally to Dor and a theory is presented that the Sikil originated in the Aegean, temporarily settled in Cyprus and finally at Dor. / Old Testament & Ancient Near Eastern Studies / M.A. (Biblical Archaeology)

Text in Afrikaans / Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal waarom kinders uit kinderhuise wegloop en om voorstelle ter voorkoming daarvan te maak. Ten opsigte van die fenomeen "wegloop" stateer die literatuur dat kinders wegloop vanaf onaangename omstandighede en/of wegloop na aangename omstandighede. Die belewing van gesinstres, gesinskonflik, portuurgroepdruk, utopiese voorstellings van wegloop, onaangename skoolbelewing en tiener swangerskap is aangeduide rolspelers onderliggend aan bogenoemde. Die empiriese studie na wegloop uit kinderhuise bet aan die lig gebring dat kinders uit kinderhuise wegloop weens traumatiese belewing van verwydering uit die ouerhuis, etikettering en inrigtingsversadiging. Voorts is bevind dat faktore wat onderliggend aan bogenoemde is, tot 'n groot mate voorkom kan word. Sekere aanbevelings ter voorkoming van wegloop uit kinderhuise is na aanleiding van die studie gedoen en kan gebruik word in die volwassene se bemoeienis met die kinderhuiskind. / The object of the study was to identify the reasons why children run away from children's homes and to make recommendations on how to prevent them from running away. On considering "run away" as a phenomenon, the literature states that children run away from harsh circumstances to acceptable or pleasant circumstances. Experiences such as family stress, conflict in the family, peer group pressure, romanticising the idea, harsh school experiences and teenage pregnancies are roll players subjacent to the above mentioned. The empirical study of "running away from children's homes" has confirmed that children run away because of traumatic separation from parental homes, labelling and institutional intolerance. Furthermore it was also found that factors subjacent to the above mentioned can be neutralised to a large extent. Certain guidelines have been recommended for adults when confronted with children in children's homes. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Voorligting)