A multiplicação dos acordos regionais de comércio e a consolidação do sistema mercantil multilateral na estrutura GATT/OMC colocaram a compatibilidade entre as iniciativas localizadas e as normas gerais no centro das atenções do direito do comércio internacional. Nesse contexto, ainda que a doutrina busque reafirmar repetidamente a necessidade de conformação dos sistemas menores com o acordo global, pouco se discute o real conteúdo dessa harmonização exigida em razão, principalmente, da extrema abertura textual dos termos dos tratados que tratam das exceções às cláusulas gerais multilaterais. Em resposta a essa instabilidade, propõe-se neste trabalho o afastamento dos requisitos objetivos em favor da compreensão dos axiomas gerais do sistema internacional de comércio como chave da conformidade do particular com o multilateral. Essa releitura proposta à unidade do direito internacional econômico exige que se entenda, primeiramente, a teorização positivista tradicional, isto é, o estudo de perspectivas teóricas como as de Hans Kelsen e H.L.A. Hart, para que, em um segundo momento, seja possível lançar mão de ensaios como os de Martti Koskenniemi para a compreensão da aparente fragmentação do direito internacional atual. No que se refere especificamente à compatibilidade, sugere-se o estabelecimento de um panorama conceitual a partir da divisão de sua abordagem em quatro distintos prismas: o legal, o doutrinário, o do sistema de exame de compatibilidade e o jurisprudencial. Compreendido o contexto teórico aplicável atualmente ao debate entre a unidade e a fragmentação do direito internacional e estabelecidos os entendimentos atualmente disponíveis à compatibilidade, torna-se possível introduzir, finalmente, a universalidade como solução conceitual à conformação do geral com o específico no sistema mercantil internacional. Nesse sentido, o código universal da legalidade idealizado por Klaus Günther aplica-se dedutivamente e, com o auxilio do Minimalismo Moral de Michael Walzer e do Interesse Comunitário de Bruno Simma, induz o estabelecimento de axiomas gerais como conteúdo à compatibilidade do regional com o multilateral no sistema internacional de comércio. Estabilizada a proposta no plano teórico, percebe-se ser possível aplicá-la, ainda, empiricamente à análise específica da relação existente entre a OMC, a ALADI e o MERCOSUL. / The propagation of regional trade agreements and the consolidation of the multilateral market system in the structure of the GATT/WTO placed the compatibility between the local initiatives and the general rules in the center of the international trade law studies. In this context, even though the doctrine confirms several times the requirement for conformation of the smaller systems with the global agreement, there are very few discussions about the real content of this required harmony, mainly because of the extreme indetermination of the terms of the treaties that establish the exceptions to the multilateral general clauses. As an answer for this pointed instability, this study proposes the displacement of the objective requirements in favor of the comprehension of the general principles of the international trade system as the key of the conformity of the particular with the multilateral. This proposal for a new understanding of the unity of the international economic law requires, firstly, the comprehension of the traditional positivist theories, it means the approach of authors like Hans Kelsen and H.L.A. Hart, and, just after that, the study of theories as the ones proposed by Martti Koskenniemi for the comprehension of the apparently fragmentation of the international law nowadays. Specifically with respect to the compatibility, it is suggested the establishment of a division of its conceptual approach in four different fields: the legal, the doctrinaire, the one of the multilateral conformity system of examination and the one of the case-law. After the comprehension of the theories applied in the debate between the unity and the fragmentation of the international law and the establishment of the available understandings of compatibility it is possible to introduce, finally, the universality as a conceptual solution for the conformation between the general and the specific in the international market system. The universal code of legality idealized by Klaus Günther applies deductively and, supported by the Moral Minimalism proposed by Michael Walzer and the Community Interest of Bruno Simma, induces the establishment of general principles as the content of the compatibility between the regional and the multilateral in the international trade system. As long as the proposal seems stabilized, it is possible to realize that it can be applied, empirically, for the specific analysis of the relationship that exists between the WTO, the LAIA and the MERCOSUR.

O presente trabalho trata da legitimidade da técnica interpretativa do Órgão de Apelação do sistema de solução de controvérsias da Organização Mundial do Comércio. A indagação que realizamos durante o trabalho é se o método interpretativo utilizado pelo Órgão de Apelação, em si, é legítimo e se, dadas as características específicas dos acordos da OMC, esse método reforça a própria legitimidade do sistema multilateral do comércio. Para tanto, definimos no primeiro capítulo o conceito de legitimidade do sistema multilateral de comércio no qual figuram, como elementos de fundamental relevância, as medidas de construção de confiança entre os Membros da OMC e a sua expectativa de que o sistema de solução de controvérsias da OMC traga segurança e previsibilidade às regras negociadas por consenso durante a Rodada Uruguai. Argumentamos que a primazia dada à letra dos acordos é um dos elementos fundamentais da segurança e da previsibilidade buscada pelos Membros da OMC. Tratamos da legitimidade da técnica interpretativa do Órgão de Apelação da OMC comparando-a com outras técnicas utilizadas por outras cortes internacionais. Analisamos quais seriam os efeitos da aplicação de outros métodos interpretativos no sistema multilateral de comércio, como por exemplo, a interpretação teleológica. Para melhor compreender os fundamentos da técnica interpretativa do Órgão de Apelação, interessou-nos examinar os métodos de interpretação de outros sistemas de direito contemporâneo, notadamente, o Common Law e o Civil Law, e verificar se procede a afirmação de parte da doutrina especializada de que há uma influência predominante do Common Law no sistema de solução de controvérsias da OMC, que supostamente colocaria em risco a legitimidade das decisões do Órgão de Apelação. Embora tenhamos denominado o presente trabalho como a técnica interpretativa do Órgão de Apelação, verificamos que essa técnica não é mecânica. Não supomos ser suficiente que o Órgão de Apelação simplesmente siga matematicamente os critérios da Convenção de Viena sobre Direito dos Tratados para alcançar o resultado e a solução para o caso concreto. Verificamos que a interpretação de um tratado vai além da técnica, envolve um raciocínio e, em última análise, uma escolha. Estudamos essa técnica/arte de raciocínio no presente trabalho. Analisamos como os elementos exteriores à técnica mecânica fazem parte da interpretação, como, por exemplo, o confronto de juízes de nacionalidades distintas e o peso da denominada cultura jurídica na prática interpretativa, além do perfil cultural de parte dos membros do Órgão de Apelação. / This work deals with the legitimacy of the interpretive technique of the World Trade Organizations dispute settlement systems Appellate Body. We ask whether the interpretive method used by the Appellate Body is, in itself, legitimate, and whether, given the specific characteristics of the system, this method reinforces the legitimacy of the multilateral trade system itself. To this end, in the introductory chapter we define the concept of the legitimacy of the multilateral trade system, in which elements of fundamental importance include the measures to build confidence among the World Trade Organization members and their expectation that the World Trade Organization dispute settlement system brings predictability to the rules negotiated by consensus during the Uruguay Round. We argue that the primacy given to the letter of the agreements is one of the fundamental elements of security and predictability sought by WTO members. We deal with the legitimacy of the World Trade Organization Appellate Bodys interpretive technique, comparing it to other techniques used by other international courts. We analyze what the effects of the application of other interpretive methods, such as, for example, teleological interpretation, would be in the multilateral trade system. To better understand the fundamentals of the Appellate Bodys interpretive technique, we examine the interpretive methods of other contemporary legal systems, especially of the common law and the civil law systems, to determine whether the claim made in the specialized legal literature that there is a predominant influence of the common law in the WTO dispute settlement system, which is allegedly putting the legitimacy of the Appellate Bodys decisions at risk, is correct. Although we have given this work the name the interpretive technique of the Appellate Body, we suggest this technique is not mechanical. We do not suppose that it is sufficient for the Appellate Body to simply mechanically follow the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties criteria to reach the result and the resolution of a concrete case. We have found that the interpretation of a treaty goes beyond the technique and involves reasoning and, in the final analysis, a choice. We have studied this reasoning technique/art in this work. We analyze how the elements exterior to the mechanical technique are part of the interpretation, such as, for example, the confrontation of judges with different nationalities and the weight of the so-called legal culture in the practice of interpretation, in addition to the cultural profile of the members of the Appellate Body.

Avant même son adhésion à l’OMC, la Chine disposait déjà en matière de propriété intellectuelle d'un arsenal juridique très complet sous de fortes influences extérieures, en particulier américaines. La Chine a instauré le système complet et efficace de propriété intellectuelle en moins de trente ans, elle a capacité de, au moins théoriquement, remplir ses engagements internationaux de l’Accord sur les ADPIC. La Chine semble maintenant l'un des pays où la protection de la propriété intellectuelle est du niveau mondial le plus avancé. Dans ce cas là, on peut néanmoins s’interroger, si on constate que la Chine a déjà rempli ses engagements internationaux en cette matière, pourquoi les Etats-Unis ont déposé deux plaintes relatives au régime chinois de propriété intellectuelle auprès de l’OMC en avril 2007 ? Pourquoi la Chine a une fois de plus été inscrit en 2007 par les Etats-Unis sur la « liste 301» ? Et pourquoi la Chine est toujours considérée comme un pays roi de la contrefaçon aux yeux des occidentaux ?Les pays développés peuvent arriver à imposer une législation aux pays en développement, ils ne peuvent cependant pas imposer sa mise en œuvre. Comme le dit le fameux proverbe, « Tu peux amener un cheval au bord de la rivière, tu ne peux néanmoins pas le faire boire ». La raison nous semble évidente en espèce : l’élaboration d’une loi suppose une action des autorités étatiques, qui pourrait être faite comme un choix diplomatique sous des contraintes ; l’application de la loi dans une société dépend des éléments juridique, économique, culturel, moral, etc., qui ne peut pas être obtenue sous l’effet d’une contraintes de quelque sorte que ce soit. Cela nous invite à réfléchir sur l’applicabilité du mécanisme de règlement des différends de l’OMC à la mise en œuvre de l’Accord sur les ADPIC. La protection des droits de propriété intellectuelle dans les pays en développement met en lumière des problèmes systémiques dont le traitement nécessite une approche globale. Même si la Chine n’est qu’un exemple des pays en développement, à cause de sa taille, c’est toujours la protection des droits de propriété intellectuelle en Chine qui attire le plus l’attention au niveau mondial. En Chine, comme dans tous les pays en développement, le décalage entre la législation nationale en matière de propriété intellectuelle et sa mise en œuvre ne peut diminuer qu’au fur et à mesure de l’évolution de la société dans les aspects concernant l’Etat de droit, la mentalité des habitants à l’égard des droits de propriété intellectuelle, le rôle de la propriété intellectuelle dans le développement de la société, etc. / Even before its entry into the WTO, China had already had a complete set of legal means in the field of intellectual property under the great external influences, especially from the United States., China has established an integrated and valid system of intellectual property in no more than three decades, therefore, she is capable of, at least theoretically, fulfilling her international commitments to the TRIPS Agreement. Nowadays, China seems to become one of the countries which have the world's highest level of intellectual property protection. Given the circumstances, if it is perceived that China has already fulfilled its international obligations under TRIPS Agreement, we still wonder why the United States appealed twice to WTO concerning China’s intellectual property system in 2007 ? Why was China listed in the "The 301 Clause" again in 2007 by the United States? And why has China been considered a manufacturer of counterfeits in westerners’ eyes?Developed countries can compel developing countries to make laws, but they can not ensure the implementation of laws. As the famous proverb goes, "You can lead a horse to the water, but you cannot make it drink." The reason seems quite obvious: legislation is an action of a country, which may be made as a diplomatic choice under certain pressure; while the application of the law, whose effect is unlikely to be achieved under any kind of external pressure, is dependant on various factors such as jurisdiction, economy, culture, ethics etc. This enables us to reflect on the validity of the WTO mechanism of dispute settlement in the implementation of the TRIPS Agreement. The protection of intellectual property rights in developing countries concerning some systematic problems requires a comprehensive cognition. Although China is an example of developing countries due to her size, the protection of intellectual property rights in China has always attracted various attentions worldwide. In China, as in all the other developing countries, the disparity between the legislation and implementation on intellectual property can only be reduced with the gradual social development in aspects of the establishment of a country under the rule of law, the ideological recognition of intellectual property rights by the public, the role of intellectual property in the process of social development, etc.

L’interprétation des dispositions des accords de l’OMC constitue l’enjeu principal de la phase d’appel du système de règlement des différends. Ce processus intellectuel vise à établir le sens des normes. La compétence d’interprétation procure donc un pouvoir normatif important que l’Organe d’appel est, en pratique, le seul à détenir en dernier ressort à l’OMC. Cependant, elle est encadrée par l’obligation, imposée par le Mémorandum d’accord sur les règles et procédures régissant le règlement des différends, d’assurer la sécurité et la prévisibilité du système commercial multilatéral. Or, l’interprétation est une opération, par nature, quasi discrétionnaire. Elle ne peut donc théoriquement pas répondre à l’objectif de sécurité. Cette thèse montre que l’Organe d’appel parvient pourtant à faire face à ce double défi : procurer, par le biais de l’interprétation, un sentiment de sécurité juridique aux membres, et assurer un minimum de sécurité juridique au système. L’Organe d’appel a conscience que l’interprétation est avant tout perçue comme une opération technique et soigne sa mise en œuvre. Sa technique interprétative rationnelle, sans être en mesure de garantir la prévisibilité, lui permet néanmoins de procurer aux membres de l’OMC un sentiment de sécurité juridique. Sa politique interprétative, basée sur l’intégration du droit de l’OMC dans le système juridique international et sur le développement et le maintien de l’unité du système OMC, lui permet, quant à elle, d’instaurer de facto une situation de relative sécurité juridique. L’Organe d’appel parvient ainsi à faire de la sécurité juridique un principe d’interprétation. / The interpretation of WTO rules is the main stake of the appeal stage of the Dispute Settlement System. This intellectual process aims at establishing the meaning of the rules. The Appellate Body has thus a strong normative power. Moreover it is de facto the only one to exercise this competence without appeal. However, this competence is limited by the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes which requires the Appellate Body to provide security and predictability to the multilateral trading system. Yet, interpretation is a near discretionary operation by nature and cannot, in theory, meet the security goal. This study demonstrates that the Appellate Body, though, manages to face this double challenge. It has to bring, thanks to interpretation, a security feeling to the WTO Members and to provide security to the system. The Appellate Body is careful about the implementation of interpretation because it is aware that interpretation is above all understood as a technical operation. Its interpretative technique is rational and, even if it is not able to ensure predictability, it brings the Members a security feeling. Its interpretative policy is based on the integration of WTO law in the international legal system and on the development and preservation of unity of the WTO system. It establishes a situation of relative legal certainty. In this way, the Appellate Body manages to use legal certainty as an interpretative principle.

La décennie 1990-2000 voit aboutir un long processus économique, politique et technique en oeuvredepuis 40 ans. L'effondrement du bloc soviétique, l'avènement des pays à bas salaires et à capacitéstechnologiques et la mise en place de l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce, en sont les fruits.L'OMC aborde tous les domaines commerciaux. L'agriculture et les activités vitivinicolesspécialement n'y échappent pas. Une politique agricole mondiale est mise en place. Un véritable droitrural mondial l'accompagne. Le droit rural européen et le droit rural français exposent par leurstransformations successives la prise en compte des exigences du droit rural mondial.Protectrices de l'espace les activités vitivinicoles sont parfois polluantes du fait de fléaux biologiquesimportés en France par le commerce international. Favorisant la protection de l'environnement lorsd'appuis publics, le droit rural mondial amène les activités vitivinicoles françaises à transformer leurslogiques d'actions environnementales, économiques et commerciales. / The decade 1990-2000 saw the conclusion of a long economic, political and technical process takingplace over the past 40 years. The collapse of the Soviet Union, the emergence of countries with cheaplabour and technological abilities, and the creation of the World Trade Organisation, are the results.The WTO covers all commercial fields. In particular, agriculture and wine-growing activities areaffected. A worldwide agricultural policy has been implemented, accompanied by a real worldwiderural legislation. A series of modifications in European rural law and French rural law show evidenceof taking into account the demands of worldwide rural legislation.Although they conserve the open countryside, wine-growing activities may be polluting, due to thebiological scourges imported into France by international trade. Opting for environmental protectionwith the support of public opinion, worldwide countryside legislation encourages French winegrowersto change their viewpoints in their environmental, economic and commercial policies.

[pt] Esta dissertação analisa a participação brasileira no G-20, uma coalizão de países em desenvolvimento (PEDs) criada pelo Brasil e a Índia durante a reunião Ministerial da Organização Mundial de Comércio (OMC), em Cancún, no México, em 2003. A coalizão tinha o objetivo de avançar a agenda de liberalização agrícola na Rodada Doha. Na época, analistas de política comercial se mostraram céticos sobre as chances de sobrevivência da coalizão, devido ao fato de que esta reunia países com interesses comerciais divergentes em agricultura. A despeito disto, o G-20 se estabeleceu como membro sine qua non das negociações e modificou o processo decisório da OMC, com a inclusão do Brasil e da Índia ao núcleo duro das negociações ao lado dos Estados Unidos e da União Européia. Porém, semelhante aumento de influência não se traduziu em uma conclusão da Rodada Doha, o que seria de sumo interesse para o Brasil. Argumento que esta dificuldade está relacionada ao fato de o G-20 ser uma coalizão com baixa coerência interna, cujas características estruturais constrangem as possíveis estratégias negociadoras ao alcance da coalizão, dificultando assim a adoção de uma estratégia distributiva que aumente as chances de que a negociação seja concluída com sucesso. O Brasil desempenhou um papel importante nessa coalizão pagando os custos da ação coletiva para garantir a coesão desta, mesmo quando isto significou abrir mão dos seus interesses comerciais. Contudo, a análise mostra que esta atitude teve limites, como ficou aparente durante a reunião da OMC realizada em Genebra em julho de 2008, quando o Brasil decidiu defender os seus próprios interesses em detrimento da cooperação com os membros do G-20. / [en] This dissertation analyzes the Brazilian participation in the G-20, a coalition of developing countries created by Brazil and India during the World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Conference held in Cancún, Mexico, in 2003. The goal of the coalition was advancing an agenda of agricultural liberalization in the Doha Round. At the time, trade policy experts were skeptical as to the chances of survival of the coalition, due to the fact that it brought together countries with divergent commercial interests in agriculture. In spite of this, the G-20 established itself as a sine qua non member of the negotiations and changed the decisionmaking process of the WTO, with the inclusion of Brazil and India in the core of the negotiations together with the United States and the European Union. However, this increase in influence has not translated into a conclusion of the Doha Round, of extreme interest for Brazil. We argue that this difficulty is related to the fact that the G-20 is a coalition with low internal coherence and that its structural characteristics constrain its negotiating strategies, making it difficult for the coalition to adopt a distributive strategy that increases the probability that the negotiation is concluded successfully. Brazil played an important role paying the collective action costs in order to maintain the cohesion of the coalition, even when this meant going against its own commercial interests. However, this attitude had its limits, as was made apparent during the WTO meeting in Geneva, in July 2008, when Brazil decided to defend its own interests in detriment of cooperating with the members of the G-20.

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / Increasing energy needs globally have recently led to an interest in effectively bringing energy services in the trading system. Energy services were part of the Uruguay Round of negotiations, whose main achievement was the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The objective of the GATS is to achieve progressive liberalisation and reduction or elimination of trade barriers of all services sectors, including energy services. The GATS has made commendable progress in liberalising many service sectors, however it has not made meaningful progress with energy services. Furthermore though the SADC region engages in energy services trade through bilateral and regional agreements, a variety of barriers inhibit major successes from being achieved. Effective energy services trade and liberalisation has therefore proved problematic both at the multilateral, regional and bilateral level. This study, seeks to investigate why energy services liberalisation and trade at the multilateral, regional and bilateral level is problematic, with a particular focus on the SADC region. / South Africa

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / Increasing energy needs globally have recently led to an interest in effectively bringing energy services in the trading system. Energy services were part of the Uruguay Round of negotiations, whose main achievement was the General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS). The objective of the GATS is to achieve progressive liberalisation and reduction or elimination of trade barriers of all services sectors, including energy services. The GATS has made commendable progress in liberalising many service sectors, however it has not made meaningful progress with energy services. Furthermore though the SADC region engages in energy services trade through bilateral and regional agreements, a variety of barriers inhibit major successes from being achieved. Effective energy services trade and liberalisation has therefore proved problematic both at the multilateral, regional and bilateral level. This study,seeks to investigate why energy services liberalisation and trade at the multilateral, regional and bilateral level is problematic, with a particular focus on the SADC region.

Orienté vers le libre-échange, le droit de l’Organisation Mondiale du Commerce est basé sur plusieurs principes fondamentaux : la non-discrimination, la réciprocité et la réduction progressive des obstacles au commerce. Il existe des mécanismes répondant à l’impératif d’adaptabilité nécessaires aux membres pour faire face à des situations exceptionnelles afin d’intégrer de la souplesse dans l’application du droit de l’OMC et de déroger aux principes et règles régissant le commerce international. Cela vaut aussi bien en période de crise qu’indépendamment de l’environnement économique général, dès lors que les conditions sont réunies pour que les membres les mettent en œuvre. La crise économique de 2008 a fait craindre un recours accru, voire abusif, à ces instruments d’exception, de dérogation, de sauvegarde, ce qui signifierait un retour à des pratiques protectionnistes. La réflexion sur l’utilisation de ces outils permet la mise en évidence des instruments proposés par le droit de l'OMC pour faire face à des situations qui nécessitent un frein au libre-échange. Elle précise également les pratiques des Membres, la logique générale de ces mécanismes de flexibilité et l’équilibre entre les principes orientés vers le libre-échange et les exceptions qui supposent des restrictions au commerce. Les questions qui se posent doivent conduire à étudier l’ensemble de ces instruments de flexibilité, l’articulation entre ces instruments et ceux des autres organisations internationales en lien avec l’OMC, le rôle du juge de l’OMC dans les différends liés à l’utilisation de ces mécanismes et les perspectives d’évolution ou de réformes des instruments de flexibilité du droit de l’OMC / Oriented toward free trade, the World Trade Organization law is based on several fundamental principles: non-discrimination, reciprocity and the gradual reduction of trade barriers. There are mechanisms that respond to the need for adaptability necessary for Members to deal with exceptional situations in order to incorporate flexibility in the application of WTO law and depart from the principles and rules governing international trade. This applies both in times of crisis, and irrespective of the general economic environment, as soon as the conditions seem to require Members to implement them. The economic crisis of 2008 has raised fears of increased use or abuse of these instruments of exception, derogation (waivers), or safeguard, all of them constituting actions that would mean a return to protectionist practices. Reflection on the use of these tools allows the identification of instruments proposed by the WTO law to deal with crisis and more generally to situations that require a barrier to free trade. But beyond that, it specifies the practices of Members in the use of these tools, the general logic of these mechanisms for flexibility and the balance between the free-trade oriented principles and the exceptions that involve restrictions on trade. The questions then raised should lead to consider all of these instruments of flexibility, the articulation between these instruments and those of other international organizations in connection with the WTO, the judge's role in WTO disputes related to the use of these mechanisms, and the prospects of change or reform of flexibility instruments WTO law

The World Trade Organisation Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO SPS) provide the rights and obligations for members to take phytosanitary measures to protect animal, plant and human life or health. Using the guidelines of the WTO SPS Agreement Article 7 this study evaluated the current SPS transparency capacity of the South African regulatory system. Based on the outcome of the evaluation a Best Practice Model for WTO SPS notification and information management was develop to improve WTO SPS compliance for South Africa Phytosanitary capacities of regulatory systems are challenged with increased global agricultural trade and a proliferation of international and regional phytosanitary standards. International Standards for Phytosanitary measures (ISPMs) are developed by the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). The concept of phytosanitary capacity was analysed and the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) tool evaluated in terms of its scope, purpose and usefulness. South Africa has attempted to address some of its phytosanitary capacity challenges system and organisational challenges by restructuring and strengthening the capacity of its National Plant Protection Organisation (NPPO) in order to meet the demands of international phytosanitary obligations and commitments. This study evaluates the phytosanitary capacity of South Africa and uses the IPPC Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) tool to identify and assess the current constraints impacting on the capacity. Based on the outcome of the PCE recommendations to address information management and capacity constraints are made. The study the used the IPPC Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) tool to evaluate phytosanitary regulatory capacity constraints impacting on the phytosanitary capacity of Malawi. The results from the PCE for Malawi was compared with the results obtained from the PCE for South Africa. The results highlighted the different levels of phytosanitary capacity between a developing country such as South Africa and a Least Developed Country such as Malawi and made recommendations to address the country specific constraints. / Dissertation (MInstAgrar)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted