國父說：「地方自治者，國之礎石也，礎不堅則國不固」。地方自治團體欲使地方自 治工作做好，非賴充足之財政收入以為支應不可，觀之各國地方政府之主要收入為： 課稅收入、補助金及規費等三種，其中應以課稅收入為最重要之財源，目前我國地方 政府之課稅收入與補助金之比重相近，尤以縣市政府為最，此乃地方政府租稅收入嚴 重不足，事事仰賴上級政府補助之結果，此問題若不予以解決，則不僅將失卻地方財 政自主，且會衍生許多弊端，因此，我國地方稅制實有加以檢討改進之必要，本文擬 就此方面予以深入探討。 本文第一章為緒論，第二章從丁波（TIEBOUT） 地方性公共財理論出發，探討地方稅 制重視應益性之理由，再逐步推論，地方稅之特性，藉以瞭解地方稅目應如何選擇及 地方稅應具備何條件，始有可能達到地方財政自主及經濟效率之要求。第三章就地方 統性質，地方租稅體系及地方稅收入三方面來介紹我國與美國及日本之地方稅制，並 試做三國地方稅制比較，其中有項主要之發現是我國地方稅制缺乏應益性、自主性、 增長性及充分性。第四章指陳我國現行地方稅制之主要缺失，並提出治本及治標兩項 建議。第五章為本文結論。

This study adds to the limited literature on residentially-focused special taxing districts by addressing three questions on crime prevention and security districts in New Orleans. 1) Do the districts share common characteristics? 2) Do they act as a tool to retain residents? 3) Do they represent what A.O. Hirschman would characterize as “exit,” “voice” or neither, and, as such, how do they effect the city’s potential for service improvement? The findings show that the districts tend to be wealthier and whiter, and to have higher homeownership rates and home values than the city at large. However, exceptionalities in three of the newer districts suggest greater diversification. This could represent a shift in the perceived role of neighborhood organizations in meeting residents’ service needs. This study also finds that districts act as mechanisms to retain and, in some cases, placate residents who might otherwise be influential constituencies demanding improved municipal services.

本文以Tiebout（1956）及Zodrow與Mieszkowski（1986）為基礎，利用地方政府間之租稅競爭行為，結合租稅負擔與支出性質，探討地方公共財最適提供條件與資本稅歸宿條件。 　租稅競爭行為通常只以課徵資本稅作為分析對象，但資本稅因存在扭曲性質，故政府提供之公共財數量必然低於最適水準。而本文引入政府提供不同類型公共財搭配課徵資本稅之觀點，利用要素彈性解釋地方公共財最適提供條件。本文發現在基本模型（僅考慮資本要素）中，消費性公共財提供數量會低於最適水準，生產性公共財則可能為提供不足或過度提供，主要原因取決於生產性公共財對生產動力之影響是否足以彌補資本稅帶來之扭曲性，而在延伸模型（同時考慮資本及勞動要素）中，消費性及生產性公共財雖仍提供不足，但消費性公共財較基本模型接近最適數量，而生產性公共財則較遠離最適數量。 　　由於廠商及居民在租稅制度之機制下皆有可能承擔稅負，新觀點之歸宿理論認為課徵單一資本稅因不存在替代效果，故稅負全部由資本所有者承擔，而本文則以政府提供不同類型公共財之觀點，分析資本稅競爭環境之最後稅負承擔者，本文發現地方政府間租稅競爭行為會使資本稅發生轉嫁現象，且稅負由資本所有者及使用者共同承擔。 當政府可透過支出政策，藉由提供吸引消費者遷入之消費性公共財或增加廠商生產動力之生產性公共財時，本文認為因公共支出成本係由使用之居民或廠商負擔，故資本稅具有使用者付費之受益性質。另本文發現在均衡時，於同轄區內定居之消費者及投資之廠商對政府公共支出品質與稅負具有相同偏好，此係政府、廠商與消費者運用自我選擇機制而使彼此間行為產生相互配合之現象，因而可滿足Tiebout模型強調之區分機制。

傳統經濟學者只從工資所得的差異，作為研究區位選擇決策的基礎。但個人的消費當 包括私有財及公共財，筆者從公共財的利益與負擔探討其關係；並圖利用其差異，來 調節人口分佈，達成區域均衡發展之目標。 首章：緒論。 第二章：地方財政差異之經濟意義。旨在說明差異的原因及對社會福利的不良影響。 第三章：地方財政差異與人口異動。主要在探討﹁以足投票﹂過程，是否可使人口分 佈達到最適。 第四章：地方財政變數資本化與人口異動。本章將前章擴充，如果資本化問題存在， 將使Tiebout 效率更不樂觀。 第五章：地方財政差異的調節措施。本章除說明中央政府調節功能，並以簡單模型說 明調節方法。 第六章：我國現況分析與政策建議。 第七章：結論。

本文以Tiebout (1956) 之假說 (Tiebout Hypothesis) 為基礎，在數個轄區之經濟環境下，假設人民具有「異質性偏好」及「完全移動性」，利用模擬 (simulation) 的方式，探討人口以及地方公共財之最適配置狀況，並探討其背後所隱含之經濟意義。 本文之研究發現有以下三點。第一，對於公共財具有異質性偏好、且具有完全移動性時，個人會依據自我選擇機制 (self-selection)，選擇使其效用極大化之轄區居住，產生區分 (sorting) 之效果，符合Tiebout所預期。第二，就比較靜態發現，在技術水準越高，或者私有財之偏好越高的情況下，高偏好轄區的人口越多，每人持有消費性公共財數量也越多；而當資本產出彈性增加，則高偏好地區人口越少，且每人持有消費性公共財數量越少。第三，若中央政府徵單一稅 (uniform tax) ，且定額稅與資本稅之稅額相等，則以中央政府的角度觀之，不論何種稅制，均不影響全國地方公共財之總提供水準，故異質性偏好在此未造成任何影響。但若以地方政府的角度觀之，並以「每人持有公共財數量」之角度切入，則異質性偏好不但造成區分效果，更使轄區之資源配置具有脫離對稱均衡的可能。若將社會總福利水準極大化時之定額稅定義為最適稅率，其所對應之每人持有地方公共財，定義為公共財之最適提供水準，以此作為比較基礎，則在課徵資本稅之下，生產要素使用之扭曲性，影響人民之消費行為，進而改變轄區內原來的資源配置，強化轄區間資源配置的差異。在本文以兩個轄區為例，並以消費性公共財為分析重點之模型，發現地方公共財的提供，受到轄區內個人偏好強度差異之影響，出現偏好強度高之轄區公共財提供過多，偏好強度低之轄區公共財提供不足之結果。 關鍵字：Tiebout、異質性偏好、完全流動性、自我選擇機制、區分效果。

After a 100-year history, traditional zoning practices are being challenged as a contributing factor in a number of social, heath and economic problems facing cities in the United States. In this context, form based codes have emerged as a possible alternative way for cities to guide development. Growing out of the New Urbanist movement, form based codes frequently mix uses, allow for a greater variety of housing types and encourage development that is both denser and more compact. Despite an established literature which links land-use regulations, and zoning in particular, to fiscal outcomes, the impacts that form based codes have on public finance in the growing number of cities which have adopted them has yet to be fully investigated. The goal of this research is to examine if and how form based codes alter property tax and sales tax generation in the cities that adopt them. To examine the relationship between form based codes and public finance a series of two multivariate regression analyses were conducted using historic property and sales tax data. The first regression analysis was performed using the full list of 122 cities which have adopted form based standards from between 1984 and 2009. In an attempt to limit the diversity of sample cities and improve the ability to generalize results a second regression analysis was performed using a smaller list of 47 cities with populations between 50,000 and 200,000 thousand that had adopted form based standards between 1984 and 2009. The results of the first analysis established that a statistically significant positive relationship existed between the presence of form based standards which were implemented citywide and observed property tax revenue both in total and on a per capita basis. Similarly, a statistically significant positive relationship between the presence of form based standards implemented at the neighborhood level and total property tax revenue was observed. No significant relationship was found between the presence of neighborhood level standards and per capita property tax revenue. Further no significant relationship was found between form based standards and sales tax revenue. In general, these findings support the theory that form based codes and the development they allow, does alter the amount of property tax a city collects, but does not support the theory that form based codes affect sales tax revenues by facilitating the development of a more conducive urban, walkable environment or for any other reason. The results of the second regression analysis using data from cities with populations between 50,000 and 200,000 showed a significant positive relationship between the presences of citywide form based standards and total property tax revenue and per capita property tax revenue. Analysis of sales tax data showed a positive relationship between total sales tax revenue and the presence of form based standards at the neighborhood level. No other significant relationship between form based standards and sales tax revenue was observed. Similar, to analysis of all cities, the results for cities with population of 50,000 to 200,000 support the theory that form based codes and the development they allow does alter the amount of property tax a city collects, and that form based codes do not affect sales tax revenues except in the case of codes adopted at the neighborhood level, where a generally positive relationship was identified at the 10% confidence interval. Following this multivariate regression analysis, a case study of Saratoga Springs, New York was completed. Located in the far reaches of the Albany Metropolitan Area, Saratoga Springs developed as a popular tourist destination in the mid 1800’s. After experiencing economic decline in line with that of its peer cities in the mid to late 20th century, Saratoga Springs has experience a boom and now boast some of the highest home values in Upstate New York. In 2003 the city was one of the first in country to adopt form based standards, which have guided a significant amount of development in the city’s historic downtown as the city re-emerged as a popular tourist destination. Since the adoption of form based standards in Saratoga Springs both property tax and sales tax receipts have doubled.

Widespread cross-border securities trading have led to the internationalization of securities markets. No one seriously disputes that such securities dealings require regulation, but there is no academic consensus on the best normative approach to such regulation. The academic debate initially focused on whether regulatory competition or cooperation constitutes the better model. However, the debate seems to have evolved to adopt a hybrid model combining the virtues of these two approaches. ‘Harmonization’ constitutes the dominant hybrid model. Nevertheless, the implementation of the harmonization model has barely received any attention in the literature. The aim of this thesis is hence two-fold: first, justify why harmonization should be the preferred model for the regulation of international securities markets; and second, develop, applying an international trade regulation perspective, a regulatory framework to implement the harmonization model using the World Trade Organization and General Agreement on Trade in Services (WTO/GATS) framework.

Widespread cross-border securities trading have led to the internationalization of securities markets. No one seriously disputes that such securities dealings require regulation, but there is no academic consensus on the best normative approach to such regulation. The academic debate initially focused on whether regulatory competition or cooperation constitutes the better model. However, the debate seems to have evolved to adopt a hybrid model combining the virtues of these two approaches. ‘Harmonization’ constitutes the dominant hybrid model. Nevertheless, the implementation of the harmonization model has barely received any attention in the literature. The aim of this thesis is hence two-fold: first, justify why harmonization should be the preferred model for the regulation of international securities markets; and second, develop, applying an international trade regulation perspective, a regulatory framework to implement the harmonization model using the World Trade Organization and General Agreement on Trade in Services (WTO/GATS) framework.