Este trabalho analisa a problemática da reprodução do modo de vida tradicional da comunidade quilombola do Mandira em seu bairro rural, partindo da recuperação do histórico de formação da comunidade e transformações no seu modo de vida após a sobreposição do bairro rural pelo Parque Estadual Jacupiranga (decreto-lei nº 145, de 08 de agosto de 1969), culminando na definição do bairro como reserva extrativista e território quilombola, sendo estas as alternativas encontradas pela comunidade para a conquista da propriedade coletiva de suas terras e da autonomia de reprodução econômico-social. As restrições ambientais à reprodução do modo de vida foram implantadas no contexto da adoção do modelo preservacionista de proteção dos remanescentes florestais pelo governo militar brasileiro que, a partir da década de 1960, criou unidades de conservação de proteção integral sobre terras devolutas reconhecidas como desabitadas, expropriando as populações tradicionais dos bairros rurais historicamente ocupados, impelindo-as a organizarem-se politicamente em torno do setor ambientalista conservacionista, que defende o conhecimento tradicional como fundamento da conservação, influenciando a política ambiental brasileira no desenvolvimento de instrumentos políticos próprios que compatibilizam conservação e reprodução do modo de vida tradicional, como a criação de reservas extrativistas e unidades de conservação de uso sustentável. O método utilizado fundou-se na abordagem materialista e dialética da história, a teoria da criação e recriação do campesinato e do latifúndio e a etnoconservação, a partir da revisão bibliográfica e trabalho de campo, baseado em história oral, que subsidiou a reconstrução das histórias de vida das famílias, a partir de roteiro semiestruturado e composição de séries fotográficas. Assim, as unidades de conservação de uso sustentável compatibilizam a conservação dos remanescentes florestais à reprodução do modo de vida tradicional que, diante de sua marginal inserção na sociedade urbano-industrial, cria e recria estratégias para sua reprodução e elementos de sua cultura local, como o trabalho familiar e as relações de sociabilidade praticadas entre as famílias da comunidade. / This paper analyzes the problem of the reproduction of the traditional way of life of Mandira`s maroon community in its rural neighborhood, starting from the recovery of the community\'s history and changes in its lifestyle after the overlapping of the rural neighborhood by the Jacupiranga State Park (decree law No. 145 from August 8, 1969), culminating in the establishment of the neighborhood as an extractive reserve and maroon territory, which were the alternatives found by the community for the achievement of collective ownership of their land and autonomy in their socioeconomic reproduction. Environmental constraints on the reproduction of its lifestyle were implemented with the adoption of the preservation model for the protection of the remaining forest by the Brazilian military government, which, starting in the 1960s, created conservation units for the integral protection on public lands recognized as uninhabited, expropriating the traditional populations of historically- occupied rural neighborhoods, pushing them to organize politically around the environmental conservation sector, which defends traditional knowledge as the basis of conservation, thus influencing Brazilian environmental policy in the development of their own political tools, such as the creation of extractive reserves and sustainable use conservation units, which reconcile conservation and the reproduction of traditional ways of life. The method used was based on the materialist and dialectical approach to history, the theory of creation and recreation of the peasantry and landed estates, and ethnoconservation, starting from the literature review and field work, based on oral history, which grounded the reconstruction of the family life stories through semi- structured script and composition of photographic series. Thus, sustainable use conservation units reconcile the conservation of the remaining forest to the reproduction of the traditional way of life, which, in face of its marginal inclusion in urban-industrial society, creates and recreates strategies for its reproduction, as well as elements from its local culture, such as family work and sociability relations practiced among the families from the community.

Este trabalho analisa a problemática da reprodução do modo de vida tradicional da comunidade quilombola do Mandira em seu bairro rural, partindo da recuperação do histórico de formação da comunidade e transformações no seu modo de vida após a sobreposição do bairro rural pelo Parque Estadual Jacupiranga (decreto-lei nº 145, de 08 de agosto de 1969), culminando na definição do bairro como reserva extrativista e território quilombola, sendo estas as alternativas encontradas pela comunidade para a conquista da propriedade coletiva de suas terras e da autonomia de reprodução econômico-social. As restrições ambientais à reprodução do modo de vida foram implantadas no contexto da adoção do modelo preservacionista de proteção dos remanescentes florestais pelo governo militar brasileiro que, a partir da década de 1960, criou unidades de conservação de proteção integral sobre terras devolutas reconhecidas como desabitadas, expropriando as populações tradicionais dos bairros rurais historicamente ocupados, impelindo-as a organizarem-se politicamente em torno do setor ambientalista conservacionista, que defende o conhecimento tradicional como fundamento da conservação, influenciando a política ambiental brasileira no desenvolvimento de instrumentos políticos próprios que compatibilizam conservação e reprodução do modo de vida tradicional, como a criação de reservas extrativistas e unidades de conservação de uso sustentável. O método utilizado fundou-se na abordagem materialista e dialética da história, a teoria da criação e recriação do campesinato e do latifúndio e a etnoconservação, a partir da revisão bibliográfica e trabalho de campo, baseado em história oral, que subsidiou a reconstrução das histórias de vida das famílias, a partir de roteiro semiestruturado e composição de séries fotográficas. Assim, as unidades de conservação de uso sustentável compatibilizam a conservação dos remanescentes florestais à reprodução do modo de vida tradicional que, diante de sua marginal inserção na sociedade urbano-industrial, cria e recria estratégias para sua reprodução e elementos de sua cultura local, como o trabalho familiar e as relações de sociabilidade praticadas entre as famílias da comunidade. / This paper analyzes the problem of the reproduction of the traditional way of life of Mandira`s maroon community in its rural neighborhood, starting from the recovery of the community\'s history and changes in its lifestyle after the overlapping of the rural neighborhood by the Jacupiranga State Park (decree law No. 145 from August 8, 1969), culminating in the establishment of the neighborhood as an extractive reserve and maroon territory, which were the alternatives found by the community for the achievement of collective ownership of their land and autonomy in their socioeconomic reproduction. Environmental constraints on the reproduction of its lifestyle were implemented with the adoption of the preservation model for the protection of the remaining forest by the Brazilian military government, which, starting in the 1960s, created conservation units for the integral protection on public lands recognized as uninhabited, expropriating the traditional populations of historically- occupied rural neighborhoods, pushing them to organize politically around the environmental conservation sector, which defends traditional knowledge as the basis of conservation, thus influencing Brazilian environmental policy in the development of their own political tools, such as the creation of extractive reserves and sustainable use conservation units, which reconcile conservation and the reproduction of traditional ways of life. The method used was based on the materialist and dialectical approach to history, the theory of creation and recreation of the peasantry and landed estates, and ethnoconservation, starting from the literature review and field work, based on oral history, which grounded the reconstruction of the family life stories through semi- structured script and composition of photographic series. Thus, sustainable use conservation units reconcile the conservation of the remaining forest to the reproduction of the traditional way of life, which, in face of its marginal inclusion in urban-industrial society, creates and recreates strategies for its reproduction, as well as elements from its local culture, such as family work and sociability relations practiced among the families from the community.

Este trabalho teve por objetivo aprofundar a reflexão e a compreensão sobre a lógica da relação sociedade-natureza nas culturas tradicionais, bem como sobre as contradições existentes nas políticas públicas territoriais de conservação da natureza, no que se refere à valorização do modo de vida tradicional. A pesquisa foi realizada a partir da análise dessas políticas e do estudo de um bairro rural tradicional caipira, o bairro dos Paulo, localizado no município de Ibiúna - São Paulo, na área de abrangência do Parque Estadual do Jurupará. O estudo de caso apresentou os elementos empíricos necessários para aprofundar a compreensão da problemática tratada pela pesquisa, ou seja, a maneira pela qual se processaram os conflitos sociais, em um contexto histórico, entre dois tipos de racionalidade e de modo de vida: um rural tradicional e, outro, contemporâneo, urbano-industrial. O desenvolvimento da pesquisa em campo se deu segundo o método da pesquisa participante, adotando-se a entrevista semiestruturada como instrumento de coleta de dados. A análise dos documentos legais e das entrevistas foi realizada com base no método de análise textual discursiva. Foi efetuado ainda o estudo comparativo do uso do solo, das glebas pertencentes à família dos Paulo, em diferentes momentos históricos: 1962, 1978 e 2009, a partir de dados secundários e de fotografias aéreas. Trata-se de um estudo geográfico de abordagem cultural crítica, em que foram definidas três categorias centrais de análise foram definidas: o território, o modo de vida tradicional e as políticas públicas territoriais de conservação da natureza. Categorias estas que, articuladas, possibilitaram identificar as formas de adaptação e a alta capacidade de resistência da cultura caipira frente aos impactos a que foi submetida, particularmente, com as transformações advindas do progresso brasileiro e, posteriormente, com a investida do Estado em criar uma Reserva Florestal, posteriormente transformada em um Parque Estadual em território caipira. A pesquisa demonstrou que os territórios tradicionais se configuram a partir de uma conduta ética diferenciada na relação sociedade-natureza. O modo de vida tradicional reflete saberes e valores que configuram um tipo específico de território, onde sua permanência no tempo, ao longo de sucessivas gerações, bem como a conservação da natureza são condições para a reprodução material e social das chamadas populações tradicionais. Na sua construção histórica, enquanto patrimônio territorial, delineia-se um tipo de gestão e de planejamento específicos, onde princípios, normas, critérios, formas de comando e hierarquias existem calcados em uma forte condição de autonomia, características estas incompatíveis com as diretrizes legais estabelecidas nos territórios de conservação da natureza. Território e modo de vida foram categorias a partir das quais se pôde, ainda, neste estudo, delinear dez premissas para a atuação do Estado junto aos territórios tradicionais caipiras, segundo seus próprios padrões de desenvolvimento, sem o que se entende que não há como falar em reconhecimento e respeito ao modo de vida tradicional. A coerência destas premissas foi discutida tendo-se por referência modelos teóricos de desenvolvimento econômico, considerados compatíveis com as características do território tradicional. / The present paper has the objective of deepening the reflection and comprehension on the logic of the relationship nature-society in traditional cultures, together with the understanding the contradictions of the territorial public policies related to environmental conservation, and to its esteem of the traditional way of life. The research was performed analysing policies and the traditional rural neighbourhood inhabitants, Paulos neighbourhood, located in the city of Ibiúna- São Paulo, in the area within the State Park of Jurupará. The case study managed to present the empirical elements required to expand the debate comprehension proposed by the research, meaning, the way social conflicts are treated in historical context, amid two types of rationality: the rural traditional and the contemporary, urban industrial. The field research was developed in the basis of participant observation method, adopting semi-structured interviews as instrument for data collection. The analysis of legal documents and interviews was performed in the textual and discourse analysis method. Following up a comparative study of soil usage was made in the land owned by Paulos family, in different historical periods: 1962, 1978, 2009 through secondary data and photographed areas. Overall, it is a geographic study with critical cultural approach, where three central categories of analyses are defined: the territory, the traditional way of life and the territorial public policies related to environmental conservation. This categories hinged upon each other, make possible the identification of adaptation formats and high persistence cultural capacity of the inhabitants, even when faced with the impacts they were submitted, specially by the transformations set up by the brazilian progress and, afterwards by the State intention to create a Reserve, later converted into State Park. The research demonstrated that traditional territories are based on a different code of ethical conduct on the relationship between society-nature. The traditional way of life reflects knowledge and value which translate to a specific type of territory. A territory where its time persistence, through successive generations, as well as through environmental conservation are conditions for the material and social reproduction of the, so called, traditional populations. In its historical construction, as territorial heritage, there is a specific type of outline for planning and management, where principles, norms, criteria, forms of command and hierarch are built upon a strong sense of autonomy, features incompatible with the legal regulations established for the environmental conservation territories. Territory and way of life are categories from which, in this study, ten premises for State action were proposed together with the territory inhabitants and according to their own pattern of development. Premises understood as essential elements for recognition and respect of the traditional way of life. The coherence of this premises were debated as reference to economic development theoretical models compatible with the traditional territory characteristics.

Este trabalho teve por objetivo aprofundar a reflexão e a compreensão sobre a lógica da relação sociedade-natureza nas culturas tradicionais, bem como sobre as contradições existentes nas políticas públicas territoriais de conservação da natureza, no que se refere à valorização do modo de vida tradicional. A pesquisa foi realizada a partir da análise dessas políticas e do estudo de um bairro rural tradicional caipira, o bairro dos Paulo, localizado no município de Ibiúna - São Paulo, na área de abrangência do Parque Estadual do Jurupará. O estudo de caso apresentou os elementos empíricos necessários para aprofundar a compreensão da problemática tratada pela pesquisa, ou seja, a maneira pela qual se processaram os conflitos sociais, em um contexto histórico, entre dois tipos de racionalidade e de modo de vida: um rural tradicional e, outro, contemporâneo, urbano-industrial. O desenvolvimento da pesquisa em campo se deu segundo o método da pesquisa participante, adotando-se a entrevista semiestruturada como instrumento de coleta de dados. A análise dos documentos legais e das entrevistas foi realizada com base no método de análise textual discursiva. Foi efetuado ainda o estudo comparativo do uso do solo, das glebas pertencentes à família dos Paulo, em diferentes momentos históricos: 1962, 1978 e 2009, a partir de dados secundários e de fotografias aéreas. Trata-se de um estudo geográfico de abordagem cultural crítica, em que foram definidas três categorias centrais de análise foram definidas: o território, o modo de vida tradicional e as políticas públicas territoriais de conservação da natureza. Categorias estas que, articuladas, possibilitaram identificar as formas de adaptação e a alta capacidade de resistência da cultura caipira frente aos impactos a que foi submetida, particularmente, com as transformações advindas do progresso brasileiro e, posteriormente, com a investida do Estado em criar uma Reserva Florestal, posteriormente transformada em um Parque Estadual em território caipira. A pesquisa demonstrou que os territórios tradicionais se configuram a partir de uma conduta ética diferenciada na relação sociedade-natureza. O modo de vida tradicional reflete saberes e valores que configuram um tipo específico de território, onde sua permanência no tempo, ao longo de sucessivas gerações, bem como a conservação da natureza são condições para a reprodução material e social das chamadas populações tradicionais. Na sua construção histórica, enquanto patrimônio territorial, delineia-se um tipo de gestão e de planejamento específicos, onde princípios, normas, critérios, formas de comando e hierarquias existem calcados em uma forte condição de autonomia, características estas incompatíveis com as diretrizes legais estabelecidas nos territórios de conservação da natureza. Território e modo de vida foram categorias a partir das quais se pôde, ainda, neste estudo, delinear dez premissas para a atuação do Estado junto aos territórios tradicionais caipiras, segundo seus próprios padrões de desenvolvimento, sem o que se entende que não há como falar em reconhecimento e respeito ao modo de vida tradicional. A coerência destas premissas foi discutida tendo-se por referência modelos teóricos de desenvolvimento econômico, considerados compatíveis com as características do território tradicional. / The present paper has the objective of deepening the reflection and comprehension on the logic of the relationship nature-society in traditional cultures, together with the understanding the contradictions of the territorial public policies related to environmental conservation, and to its esteem of the traditional way of life. The research was performed analysing policies and the traditional rural neighbourhood inhabitants, Paulos neighbourhood, located in the city of Ibiúna- São Paulo, in the area within the State Park of Jurupará. The case study managed to present the empirical elements required to expand the debate comprehension proposed by the research, meaning, the way social conflicts are treated in historical context, amid two types of rationality: the rural traditional and the contemporary, urban industrial. The field research was developed in the basis of participant observation method, adopting semi-structured interviews as instrument for data collection. The analysis of legal documents and interviews was performed in the textual and discourse analysis method. Following up a comparative study of soil usage was made in the land owned by Paulos family, in different historical periods: 1962, 1978, 2009 through secondary data and photographed areas. Overall, it is a geographic study with critical cultural approach, where three central categories of analyses are defined: the territory, the traditional way of life and the territorial public policies related to environmental conservation. This categories hinged upon each other, make possible the identification of adaptation formats and high persistence cultural capacity of the inhabitants, even when faced with the impacts they were submitted, specially by the transformations set up by the brazilian progress and, afterwards by the State intention to create a Reserve, later converted into State Park. The research demonstrated that traditional territories are based on a different code of ethical conduct on the relationship between society-nature. The traditional way of life reflects knowledge and value which translate to a specific type of territory. A territory where its time persistence, through successive generations, as well as through environmental conservation are conditions for the material and social reproduction of the, so called, traditional populations. In its historical construction, as territorial heritage, there is a specific type of outline for planning and management, where principles, norms, criteria, forms of command and hierarch are built upon a strong sense of autonomy, features incompatible with the legal regulations established for the environmental conservation territories. Territory and way of life are categories from which, in this study, ten premises for State action were proposed together with the territory inhabitants and according to their own pattern of development. Premises understood as essential elements for recognition and respect of the traditional way of life. The coherence of this premises were debated as reference to economic development theoretical models compatible with the traditional territory characteristics.

Lentsoane uses the title of his narrative to highlight the theme. Special attention is paid to this. The suspense is captured in the clash between the traditional attitude to life held by the Bapedi and the modem philosophy of life held by the younger generation. Lentsoane effectively uses the concept of a journey to convey his message to his reader. The visit of the antagonist Kgoteledi to the homeland is especially important in this regard, as her family there is conservative and thus strongly supports her actions. But it is also here that she becomes aware of change. Other important techniques used by Lentsoane are: contrast, symbolism, shifting of focus, mirrorimages, naming, summary and retardation, foreshadowing, but also the reference to related matters. This latter technique has an important emphasising function. Although conflict is emphasised all the time, the climax is reached with the announcement that Mihloti, Dikgoneng's girlfriend, is pregnant. The mother (and therefore also the rest of the family) hereby accept that change has also become part of their lives. Kgoteledi comes to terms with the situation and passes away. AFRIKAANS : In hierdie verhandeling word Lentsoane se novelle, Megokgo ya Lethabo, as 'n liefdesverhaal besktyf waarin die liefdesverhouding tussen die minnaars nie deur die jongman se familie goedgekeur word nie, omdat die jong meisie lid van 'n ander etniese groep is. Die beskrywings model wat vir die ondersoek gevolg word, is 'n aangepaste narratologiese model. Boonop word slegs twee van die struktuurlae ondersoek, nl. die inhouds- en die samestellingslae. In die beskrywing van die inhoudslaag is die vier epiese elemente, karakter, handeling, tyd en plek, noukeurig nagegaan, en t.o.v. die onderwerp wat die outeur gekies het, beskryf. Die onderwerp bepaal die onderlinge verhouding tussen die verskillende karakters, en verdeel die handeling in drie groot aksiekategorieë, t.w. die liefdesverhouding, die besware van die jongman se familie, en die uiteindelike troue. Die tydsbegrip word omskryf in terme van 'n tydstip, tydsverloop en tydsomstandighede. Vir die beskrywing van die samestellingslaag van die werk is daar twee kernbegrippe wat uitgelig word, nl. die temabegrip en die tegniek begrip wat 'n verhoudingsbegrip is en nie eenduidig in verwysing is nie. Die tema wat hier vooropgestel word, is die van verandering, en slaan op die voortdurende verandering in die lewe van mense en kulture. Die karakter van die protagonis, Dikgoneng, word in terme van noodsaaklike en bykomende kenmerke beskryf. Die noodsaaklike kenmerke hou met die verhaalsoort of genre verband, terwyl die outeur met die bykomende kenmerke sy Ieser tot vereenselwiging met die protagonis oorhaal. Die antagonis word slegs t.o.v. die noodsaaklike kenmerke beskryf. Lentsoane gebruik die verhaaltitel as 'n belangrike outeursmiddel om die tema van sy werk na vore te bring. Besondere aandag word hieraan afgestaan. Die spanningselement lê opgevang in die botsing tussen die tradisionele lewensopvattings van die Bapedi en die modeme lewensbeskouing van die jong geslag. Lentsoane maak effektief van die reisbegrip gebruik om sy boodskap aan sy leer tuis te bring. Hier is dit veral die antagonis, Kgoteledi, se besoek aan die tuisland, wat belangrik is, omdat haar familie daar behoudende mense is, en haar dus in haar saak sterk steun. Maar dis dan ook hier waar sy van verandering bewus raak. Belangrike ander tegnieke wat Lentsoane gebruik, is kontrastering, simboliek, fokusverskuiwing, spieëlbeeldstelling, naamgewing, tydsversnelling en vertraging, vooruitskouring, maar veral die verwysing na verwante geleenthede wat 'n sterk beklemtoningsfunksie het. Hoewel konflik deurentyd aan die orde is, word die hoogtepunt met die aankondiging bereik dat Mihloti (Dikgoneng se nooi) swanger is. Die moeder (en daarom ook die res van die familie) aanvaar hiermee dat verandering ook deel van hulle lewens geword het. Kgoteledi berus haar hierin en sterwe. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 1999. / African Languages / unrestricted

Les minorités sont les fruits de l’histoire, des conquêtes, des défaites, des modifications de frontières. Mais si aucune histoire nationale ne ressemble à une autre, les minorités, dans leur diversité, se trouvent dans des situations s’apparentent les unes aux autres. Dans ce contexte global, cette étude a pour objectif d’appréhender dans quelle mesure les droits nationaux et internationaux des minorités répondent effectivement aux besoins des personnes appartenant à ces dernières. Pour ce faire, deux thématiques revenant régulièrement dans les doléances des membres des minorités ont été sélectionnées. Il s’agit, en premier lieu, de la prise en compte des spécificités relatives à l’habitat (dans sa diversité) et, en second lieu, de la possibilité de communiquer dans sa propre langue. Après une présentation du droit international portant sur ces questions, est ici étudiée la façon dont ce droit ou plutôt ces droits sont transposés et mis en œuvre dans les systèmes nationaux (en effet, il existe de fortes variantes entre la protection offerte par les organes universels et celles offertes par les organes régionaux européens et américains). Pour rendre compte de la diversité des situations nationales, six pays sont ici étudiés. Il s’agit de l’Espagne, de la France et de la Lituanie pour l’Europe et du Canada, du Costa Rica et du Paraguay pour l’Amérique. Nous constatons que, feignant de méconnaître l’intérêt que présente une protection convenable des minorités pour la stabilité de leur société nationale et même pour la démocratie en général, les gouvernants ne sont pas toujours prêts à mettre en œuvre les dispositions visant à protéger les personnes appartenant à des minorités et opposent l’intérêt général ou des arguments tirés du caractère unitaire de leur peuple, de leur territoire ou de leur nation. A ceci s’ajoutent des difficultés pratiques lors de la mise en œuvre des normes adoptées, difficultés occasionnées par des raisons financières, par exemple le coût des mesures positives visant à l’égalité effective dans les domaines de l’enseignement, des médias, de la vie privée et familiale ou encore obligation de partage des bénéfices générés par l’extraction minière avec les peuples autochtones. D’autres raisons peuvent être liées à l’intolérance sous-jacente dans la population majoritaire, par exemple les attaques de campements Roms ou l’interdiction de parler une langue minoritaire dans certains contextes ou lieux. Malgré cela, le droit international des minorités est en évolution continue, puisant dans la diversité des contextes régionaux et se fondant tant sur les droits de l’homme et le droit à ne pas être discriminé, que sur une transposition à toutes les minorités d’éléments des droits reconnus aux peuples autochtones en tant que premiers habitants d’un territoire donné. De plus, dans une volonté de promouvoir une démocratie véritable à caractère participatif, les organes de droits de l’homme poussent les autorités nationales à associer toujours plus les membres des minorités aux prises de décision les concernant, et à prendre ainsi en compte les besoins de ces derniers. Ainsi, l’étude comparée de la protection des minorités en Europe et en Amérique permet de se rendre compte des difficultés pratiques empêchant de protéger effectivement les minorités et d’appréhender dans quelle mesure le droit international peut aider les États à surmonter ces difficultés. / Minorities are the product of history, conquests, defeats and border changes. No two national histories are alike, however, minorities, in their diversity, find themselves in situations that appear similar the one another. In this overall context, the objective of this research is to better understand to what extent national and international minority rights effectively meet the needs of individuals belonging to those minorities. To do so, two issues that reoccure in the grievances of members of minorities have been selected for study. These are firstly the consideration shown towards housing specificities (in their diversity) and secondly, the possibility of communicating in one’s own language. Following the presentation of international law related to these issues, is studied the way this law, or better said these laws, are transposed and implemented in the national systems (in fact, there are major variants between the protection offered by universal organs and the one offered by European and American regional organs). In order to take into consideration the diversity of national situations, six countries were selected for this study. These were Spain, France and Lithuania in the European context, and Canada, Costa Rica and Paraguay in the American context. Our findings show that those who govern pretend to be unaware of the benefits related to adequate protection of minorities for the stability of national societies, as well as for democracy at large. As such, they are not always ready to implement the provisions that aim to protect persons belonging to minorities and claim the interest of the public good or arguments based on the unity of their people, territory or nation as reasons for doing so. In addition, it should be mentioned that some practical difficulties exist in the implementation of adopted norms. These include difficulties caused by financial reasons, for example, the cost of positive measures aiming at effective equality in the field of education, media, private and family life or the obligation to share with indigenous people the benefits generated by mining. Other reasons may be linked to underlying intolerance present in the majority population, for example, attacks on Roma settlements or prohibition on speaking a minority language in some spheres or places. However, the international rights of minorities are constantly evolving, drawing on the diversity of regional contexts and based on human rights and the right not to be discriminated against, as well as on the application, to all minorities, of elements of the rights recognized to indigenous peoples as the first inhabitants of a given territory. Moreover, in an effort to promote genuine democracy of a participatory nature, human rights bodies push national authorities to involve ever more members of minorities in decisions that affect them, thereby taking their needs into consideration. The comparative study of the protection of minorities in Europe and in America enables reporting the practical difficulties preventing minorities from being effectively protected and assists in understanding to what extent international law can help countries overcome these difficulties.