Les trois proto-oncogènes RAS, soit HRAS, KRAS et NRAS (H/K/NRAS), sont les gènes les plus fréquemment mutés dans les cancers humains. Les énormes défis liés au ciblage thérapeutique des RAS soulignent la nécessité d’approfondir notre compréhension de la biologie de ces protéines et de trouver des stratégies alternatives pour traiter les cancers qu’elles induisent. Les petites GTPases RAS sont des régulateurs fondamentaux du développement et se lient à des protéines effectrices distinctes pour transmettre des signaux afin de réguler diverses voies de signalisation intracellulaires. Les effecteurs de RAS sont définis par un domaine de liaison à RAS (RBD) qui reconnaît la conformation active de RAS liée au GTP et active les voies de signalisation en aval. Par exemple, les effecteurs RAF et PI3K régulent les voies de signalisation MAPK et PI3K-AKT, respectivement, pour contrôler la prolifération, la survie et la tumorigenése. Alors que RASSF5 dirige RAS vers la voie Hippo, suppresseur de tumeur, mais cela reste moins bien compris. Il est intéressant de noter que la famille des domaines d'association à RAS (RASSF) comprend 10 effecteurs RAS supposés en aval, chacun comprenant un RBD, mais seul le RASSF5 se lie à H/K/NRAS. Les RASSF sont des suppresseurs de tumeurs connus et comptent parmi les protéines les plus fréquemment régulées à la baisse dans les cancers. La superfamille des petites GTPases RAS compte chez l’humain environ 160 protéines regroupées en cinq sous-familles : RAS, RHO, RAN, RAB et ARF. Alors que H/K/NRAS sont les mieux caractérisées et ont été au centre de la recherche sur le cancer, les fonctions cellulaires, la régulation et les protéines effectrices de nombreuses autres GTPases de la superfamille RAS restent obscures. Ma recherche doctorale visait donc à étudier le rôle des effecteurs de RASSF en cartographiant les interactions de BRAF et de quatre protéines de RASSF avec 83 GTPases appartenant aux sous-familles RAS, RHO et ARF et à utiliser ces connaissances pour démêler l'interaction complexe entre les GTPases et les effecteurs. Nous avons abordé des questions clés sur la spécificité des RBD envers les GTPases et avons révélé et validé 39 interactions RASSF-GTPase. Nous avons constaté qu'alors que BRAF démontre une spécificité restreinte pour les H/K/NRAS classiques, RASSF fait preuve de plasticité dans ses interactions avec les GTPases. RASSF5 interagit avec 10 GTPases distinctes de la sous-famille RAS (H/K/NRAS, RAP2B/2C, RRAS1/2, MRAS et RIT1/2) qui favorisent la croissance. La présence d’un complexe RASSF5-GTPase à la membrane plasmique redistribue la protéine YAP dans le cytosol et active la signalisation Hippo. Nous avons également montré que l'interaction de RASSF5 avec les kinases MST est essentielle pour l'activation de la voie Hippo médiée par le complexe RASSF5-GTPase. Nous avons également révélé que RASSF3, RASSF4 et RASSF8 lient les GTPases de la sous-famille RAS inhibitrices de croissance. RASSF8 subit une séparation de type liquide-liquide et réside avec YAP dans des gouttelettes non-membranaires. De plus, l'expression des partenaires GTPase de RASSF8 redistribue les condensats de RASSF8 et YAP de grandes structures périnucléaires. YAP et la voie Hippo entraînent une résistance aux inhibiteurs de RAS dans les cancers induits par RAS. Ainsi, nos découvertes sur l'association de RASSF5 et RASSF8 avec la voie Hippo pourraient aider à élucider les liens manquants entre les signalisations RAS et Hippo. Nous avons également identifié RASSF3 comme le premier effecteur canonique de MIRO1/2, des GTPases mitochondriales essentielles pour le fonctionnement et l'homéostasie des mitochondries. L'interaction de RASSF3 avec MIRO dans les mitochondries entraîne un effondrement du réseau mitochondrial. Pour comprendre la dynamique du réseau des GTPases, nous développons un outil de GTPase piégée inductible par la rapamycine. Ainsi, le piège qui garde la GTPase surexprimée inactive peut être libérée et la GTPase activée de manière conditionnelle en utilisant le traitement à la rapamycine. Cet outil sera utile pour élucider le rôle précis de chaque GTPase dans la régulation des effecteurs en aval in cellulo. Par conséquent, cette étude révèle la nature complexe des interactions entre GTPases et effecteurs et met en lumière l'importance biologique des protéines RASSF. / The three RAS proto-oncogenes, namely HRAS, KRAS and NRAS (H/K/NRAS) are the most frequently mutated genes in human cancers. H/K/NRAS small GTPases are fundamental regulators of development and bind distinct effector proteins to transmit signals to diverse cellular pathways. RAS effectors are defined by a RAS-binding domain (RBD) which recognizes the GTP-bound activated conformation of RAS and activates downstream signalling pathways. For example, RAF and PI3K effectors regulate the MAPK and PI3K-AKT signalling pathways, respectively, to control proliferation, survival and tumorigenesis. Whereas RASSF5 directs RAS to the tumour suppressor Hippo pathway but this remains less understood. Interestingly, the RAS Association domain family (RASSF) comprises 10 purported downstream RAS effectors, each of which comprises an RBD, but only RASSF5 binds to H/K/NRAS. RASSF are known tumour suppressors and are among the most frequently downregulated proteins in cancers. There are approximately 160 proteins in the human RAS superfamily that are clustered into five subfamilies: RAS, RHO, RAN, RAB and ARF. While H/K/NRAS are the best-characterized and have been a principal focus of cancer research, cellular functions, regulation and effectors for many other GTPases of the RAS superfamily remain recondite. My doctoral research therefore aimed to investigate the role of RASSF effectors by mapping the interactions of BRAF and four RASSF proteins with 83 GTPases belonging to the RAS, RHO and ARF subfamilies and use this knowledge to unravel the complex interplay between GTPase and effectors. I uncovered 39 RASSF–GTPase interactions and addressed key questions on RBD specificity towards GTPases. I found that while BRAF demonstrates restricted specificity for classical H/K/NRAS, RASSF shows plasticity in its interaction with GTPases. RASSF5 interacts with 10 distinct growth-promoting GTPases of the RAS subfamily (H/K/NRAS, RAP2B/2C, RRAS1/2, MRAS and RIT1/2). RASSF5–GTPase complex at the plasma membrane redistributes YAP to the cytosol and activates Hippo signalling. I also showed that RASSF5 interaction with MST hippo kinases is essential for RASSF5–GTPase complex-mediated activation of the Hippo pathway. I further revealed that RASSF3, RASSF4 and RASSF8 bind distinct growth-inhibiting RAS subfamily GTPases. RASSF8 undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation and resides in membraneless, phase-separated YAP condensates. Further, the expression of GTPase partners of RASSF8 redistributes RASSF8 and YAP condensates to large peri-nuclear structures. These findings show several GTPase–RASSF complexes play a role in Hippo signalling which may serve as potential therapeutic targets for RAS- or YAP-driven cancers. I also identified RASSF3 as the first canonical effector of MIRO1/2, mitochondrial GTPases that are essential for mitochondrial functions and homeostasis. RASSF3 interaction with MIRO at the mitochondria results in a collapse of the mitochondrial network. To understand the dynamics of the GTPase network, I am further developing a rapamycin-inducible trapped GTPase (RITG) tool, wherein a GTPase can be overexpressed while remaining occluded, and can be conditionally released or activated. This tool can be useful in elucidating the role of GTPases in the regulation of downstream effectors in cellulo. Overall, this study reveals the complex nature of GTPase–effector interactions and uncovers the biological significance of RASSF proteins.

Le système immunitaire est dynamique, et notre laboratoire a identifié SKAP1 comme une protéine adaptatrice immunitaire clé dans l'activation de l'adhésion de l'intégrine LFA-1 des lymphocytes T. Une expression réduite de SKAP1 améliore la mobilité des lymphocytes T et réduit leur temps de contact avec les cellules présentatrices d'antigènes. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que cette mobilité accrue pourrait augmenter la résistance des souris Skap1-/- contre la croissance tumorale en favorisant la pénétration des lymphocytes T dans les tumeurs. Les modèles de mélanome murin ont montré une régression tumorale améliorée et une augmentation des cellules T CD8 intratumorales dans les souris SKAP1 knockout (KO). Ces cellules T intratumorales ont montré une expression accrue de Ki-67 et une production excessive d'IFNγ, avec moins d'épuisement terminal (TIM3+CD101+) et un phénotype transitoire CX3CR1+. Le profilage transcriptomique et de cytométrie en flux a révélé une surexpression de CD28, corrélée négativement à l'épuisement. De plus, les splénocytes KO activés ex vivo ont montré une activité glycolytique accrue et une activation renforcée de la voie CD28/Akt/mTOR. En résumé, la perte de SKAP1 confère aux lymphocytes T des avantages prolifératifs et effecteurs intratumoraux, avec une capacité de glycolyse améliorée pour leur survie en environnement anaérobie. Ces résultats identifient SKAP1 comme une cible prometteuse pour les thérapies adaptatives contre les tumeurs, telles que les CAR-T. / Immune system is a dynamic system. Our lab identified the adaptor protein SKAP1, which activates T-cell integrin LFA-1 adhesion. Reduced SKAP1 expression increases T-cell motility and decreases T cell-APC dwell times. We hypothesized that this increased motility might enhance tumour penetration in Skap1-/- mice by improving T-cell tumour penetration. In mouse melanoma models Yummer 1.7 and B16 F10, SKAP1 knockout (KO) mice showed greater tumour regression and increased intratumoural CD8 T cells. KO T cells exhibited higher Ki-67 expression, indicating higher cell division, and produced more IFNγ. Despite increased proliferation, CD8 TILs from KO mice showed less terminal exhaustion (TIM3+CD101+) and a transitory phenotype with elevated CX3CR1. Transcriptome and flow cytometry profiling revealed upregulated CD28, negatively correlated with exhaustion. Ex vivo activated KO splenocytes showed increased glycolysis but not oxidative phosphorylation, alongside enhanced CD28/Akt/mTOR pathway activation. Overall, SKAP1 loss provided T cells with multiple benefits: stronger proliferative and effector CD8+ T cells with less terminal exhaustion and higher glycolytic capacity for survival in anaerobic environments. These findings identified SKAP1 as a promising target for adaptive tumour therapies, such as CAR-T.

Cell separation based on antibody-targeted magnetic beads has been widely used in a number of applications in immunology, microbiology, oncology and more recently, in the isolation of circulating tumour cells (CTCs) in cancer patients. Although other cell separation techniques such as size based cell filtration and Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting have also been in popular use, immunomagnetic cell isolation possesses the advantages of high throughput, good specificity and reduced cell stress. However, certain fundamental features of the cell-bead interface are still unknown. In this study, some of the key features of the cell-bead synapse were investigated in an effort to improve the efficiency of immunomagnetic cell isolation and reduce its dependence on high expressing cell surface markers. A clinically relevant antibody fragment (Fab) against tyrosine kinase receptor HER2 was applied to study the immunomagnetic isolation of HER2 expressing cancer cells. First, the minimum number of target proteins required on a cell for it to be isolated was determined. Second, the importance of the primary antibody affinity was investigated, using a series of Fab mutants with known kinetics and it was shown that despite starting with sub-nanomolar affinity, improving Fab affinity increased cell isolation. Third, the influence of the connection between the primary antibody and the bead was studied by comparing Fab bridged to the magnetic bead via a secondary antibody, Protein L or streptavidin; the high affinity biotin-streptavidin linkage increased isolation sensitivity by an order of magnitude. Fourth, the effect of manipulating cytoskeletal polymerization and cell membrane fluidity using small molecules was tested; cholesterol depletion decreased isolation and cholesterol loading increased cell isolation. The insights from these observations were then applied to isolate a panel of cell lines expressing a wide range of surface HER2. While the standard approach isolated less than 10% of low HER2 expressing cancer cells from spiked rabbit and human blood, our enhanced approach with the optimized cholesterol level, antibody affinity and antibody-bead linkage could specifically isolate more than 80% of such cells. The final part of this work focussed on developing an antibody clamp that could physically restrict the antigen within its binding site on the Fab and prevent antigen dissociation, using the HER2-Fab complex and the anti-myc peptide antibody 9E10. Work from this thesis provides useful insights into the molecular and cellular parameters guiding immunomagnetic cell isolation and can be used to extend the range of target receptors and biomarkers for tumour cell isolation and other types of cell separation, thereby enhancing the power and capacity of this approach.

The MHC class I status of tumour cells during immunotherapy is often underestimated. It represents one of important tumour escape mechanisms and thus can contribute to the failure of most of the cancer clinical trials that are usually based on the induction of cytotoxic T cell responses. Epigenetic changes in the promoters of genes involved in the MHC class I Ag presentation can result in decreased expression of the cell surface MHC molecules on tumour cells. Thus, epigenetic modifiers can restore an expression of the MHC class I molecules and make tumours visible to the CD8+ effector cells. Besides the epigenetic changes on the tumour cells, epigenetic modulators affect cells of the immune system such as dendritic cells (DC). Tumour cells can escape from the immune response not only by changes in the cancer cells, but also by influencing, expanding and/or activating immunoregulatory cell populations, such as regulatory T cells (Treg). This thesis focuses on the potential of the DC-based vaccines against HPV-16-associated tumours with a different MHC class I expression, on the combination of cancer immunotherapy with the treatment using epigenetic modifiers, with special attention paid to their effects on DC, and, finally, on the impacts of the anti-CD25 antibody (used for Treg elimination) on Treg and NKT...

Class I PI3Ks are a family (α, β, δ and γ) of ubiquitous lipid kinases that can be activated by cell surface receptors to 3-phosphorylate PI(4,5)P2 (phosphatidylinositol(4,5)-bisphosphate) and generate the signalling lipid PI(3,4,5)P3. The PI(3,4,5)P3 signal then activates a diverse collection of effector proteins involved in regulation of cell migration, metabolism and growth. The importance of this network is evidenced by the relatively high frequency with which cancers acquire gain-of-function mutations in this pathway and huge efforts to make PI3K inhibitors to treat cancer. The canonical model describing these events suggests class I PI3Ks are activated at the plasma membrane and generate PI(3,4,5)P3 in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane where its effectors are activated. The PI(3,4,5)P3 signal can be terminated directly, by the tumour-suppressor and PI(3,4,5)P3-3-phosphatase PTEN, or modified to a distinct PI(3,4)P2 signal, by SHIP-family 5-phosphatases. The PI(3,4)P2 is removed by INPP4-family 4-phosphatases. Published work has shown that PI(3,4,5)P3 signalling can also occur in endosomes and nuclei, however, there is very little data defining the intracellular distribution of endogenous class I PI3Ks that supports these ideas; this is as a result of technical problems such as; their very low abundance, poor antibody-based tools and artefacts generated by overexpression of PI3Ks. Past work has indicated that, in PTEN-null mouse models of prostate tumour progression, either PI3Kβ or PI3Ks α and β, have important roles. Furthermore, the cell types and mechanism involved remained unclear. Recent published work in the host laboratory had indicated that there is an unexpectedly large accumulation of PI(3,4)P2 in PTEN-null cells that might be an important part of its status as a major tumour suppressor. The explanation and prevalence of this observation was unclear but potentially a result of PTEN also acting as a PI(3,4)P2 3-phosphatase in vivo. MEFs were derived from genetically-modified mice expressing endogenous, AviTagged class I PI3K subunits and used in experiments to define the subcellular localisation of class I PI3Ks. We found that following stimulation with PDGF, class IA PI3K subunits were unexpectedly depleted from the adherent basal membrane, in contrast, p85α and p110α, but not p85β and p110β, accumulated transiently in the nucleus. Interestingly, p110β, but none of the other subunits, was constitutively localised in the nucleus. These results support the idea that class I PI3K and PI(3,4,5)P3 signalling occurs in the nucleus. In organoids derived from WT, PI3Kγ-null or PTEN-null mouse prostate, application of PI3K-selective inhibitors revealed that PI3Kα had a dominant role in generating PI(3,4,5)P3 in prostate epithelial cells. The levels of PI(3,4)P2 were also elevated substantially in PTEN-null, compared to WT prostate organoids, use of PI3K-selective inhibitors suggested that it was also generated by PI3Kα. These data were consistent with the idea that PTEN can act as a PI(3,4)P2 3-phosphatase. Surprisingly, raising the pH of the organoids medium dramatically increased accumulation of PI(3,4,5)P3 and PI(3,4)P2, although the cause of this effect was unclear, we hypothesised the pH of the local environment may influence signalling via class I PI3Ks.

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Animal testing is still the common method to test the efficacy of new drugs, but tissue engineered in vitro models are becoming more acceptable for replacing and reducing animal testing in anti-cancer drug screening by developing in vitro three-dimensional (3D) tumour models for anti-cancer drug testing. In this study, three-dimensional (3D) culture methods were developed to mimic the tumour microenvironment. 3D culturing is to seed, maintain and expand cultured cells in three-dimensional space, in contrast to the traditional two-dimensional (2D) method in which the cells attach to the bottom of culture containers as monolayers. To mimic the intercellular interplay for tumour study, cell co-culture was applied. In this thesis, perfusion culture showed a better homeostasis for 3D tumour model growth over 17 days, with a more controllable working platform and a more reliable response-dose correlation for data interpretation. In the Matrigel sandwich system, the co-culture of breast cancer cells and endothelial cells demonstrated the morphology featuring a vascular network and tumour structures, with the thickness of the three-dimensional structure around 100µm and tubule length 200-400 µm, and maintained for 10 days. The comparisons studies between Matrigel sandwich and other methods suggest that though not fully characterised, Matrigel is still a valuable scaffold choice for developing co-culture 3D tumour model. Finally, the combination of perfusion and co-culture showed the potential of applying this model in angiogenesis assay, with a drug response profile combining cell viability and morphology to mimic in vivo tumour physiology.

Hintergrund Die Strahlentherapie ist neben der radikalen Prostatektomie eine Standardtherapie zur Behandlung von Prostatatumoren und führt zu sehr guten Ergebnissen für die lokale Tumorkontrolle und für das Überleben. Allerdings ist, wie bei der Operation auch, dabei das Risiko eines Rezidivs für fortgeschrittene Tumoren im Gegensatz zu Tumoren in früheren Stadien relativ hoch. Daher besteht eine hohe Dringlichkeit zur Verbesserung der Strahlentherapie vor allem bei fortgeschrittenen Tumoren. Ein Ansatz hierfür ist die Kombination der Bestrahlung mit molekularen Therapien. Ziel dabei ist es, bestimmte Zielproteine zu blockieren, um die Strahlensensibilität der Prostatakarzinomzellen zu erhöhen. Ein potentielles Target könnte hierbei die Blockade des VEGF-C/NRP-2/Akt-Signalwegs (VEGF-C – vascular endothelial growth factor C; NRP-2 – Neuropilin 2; Akt – Proteinkinase B) sein. Im Prostatakarzinom sind die Konzentrationen von VEGF-C und NRP-2 im Vergleich zu normalen Prostatazellen erhöht. Aus Untersuchungen ist bekannt, dass beide Proteine eine progressive Wirkung auf die Tumorgenese haben. In Vorarbeiten zeigen Muders et al. (2009) zudem eine Aktivierung von Akt über die VEGF-C/NRP-2-Achse und eine darüber vermittelte Resistenz gegenüber oxidativem Stress durch H2O2. Akt wirkt in verschiedenen Tumorentitäten außerdem protektiv gegenüber Bestrahlung. Es besteht die Annahme, dass dies auch für Prostatakarzinomzellen gilt. Zielstellung Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob und über welchen Mechanismus VEGF-C, NRP-2 und Akt die Strahlenresistenz in Prostatakarzinomzelllinien beeinflussen. Methoden Es wurden in vitro- und in vivo-Experimente in den humanen Prostatakarzinomzelllinen PC-3, DU145, LNCaP sowie in PC-3-Xenografts durchgeführt. Der Einfluss von VEGF-C und NRP-2 auf die Strahlenresistenz wurde in vitro nach Herunterregulierung der entsprechenden Gene mittels siRNA beziehungsweise nach Supplementierung mit humanem rekombinanten VEGF-C in Koloniebildungsassays untersucht. Zur Ermittlung des Einflusses von VEGF-C und von NRP-2 auf mögliche Zellüberlebensmechanismen wurden der autophagische Flux nach Blockade der Autophagie mit Bafilomycin A1 mittels Western Blot, die DNA-Doppelstrangbruch-Reparatur mittels Quantifizierung der γH2AX Foci sowie die Zellzyklusverteilung mittels Durchflusszytometrie untersucht. Die Signalweiterleitung von VEGF-C über Akt sowie, als weitere Möglichkeit, die Signalweiterleitung über ERK1/2 wurden nach siRNA-Transfektion mit und ohne Bestrahlung mittels Western Blot geprüft. Weitere Versuche zu Akt erfolgten in vitro und in vivo mit dem PI3K/Akt-Inhibitor Nelfinavir in PC-3-Zellen. Der in vitro Effekt von Nelfinavir auf die Strahlenresistenz wurde dabei mithilfe eines Koloniebildungsassays nach Behandlung der Zellen mit 10 µM Nelfinavir getestet. In vivo wurde die Wirkung von Nelfinavir ohne sowie in Kombination mit Bestrahlung in PC-3-Xenografts in Nacktmäusen untersucht. Für die Bestimmung der Tumorwachstumszeit wurden die Mäuse mit 80 mg Nelfinavir/kg Körpergewicht 30 mal innerhalb von 6 Wochen behandelt. In einem weiteren Versuch wurde die lokale Tumorkontrolle bei gleichzeitiger fraktionierter Bestrahlung mit Gesamtdosen von 30 bis 120 Gy und einer Nachbeobachtungszeit von 180 Tagen bestimmt. Ergebnisse Die Untersuchungen zur Strahlenresistenz über den VEGF-C/NRP-2/Akt-Signalweg haben ergeben, dass in den drei Prostatakarzinomzelllinien PC-3, DU145 und LNCaP VEGF-C signifikant Strahlenresistenz vermittelt. Für NRP-2 hingegen wurde festgestellt, dass es in Abhängigkeit von der Zelllinie entweder zur Strahlenresistenz (DU145) oder zur Strahlensensibilisierung (PC-3) führt. Weiterhin wurde nachgewiesen, dass durch VEGF-C in PC-3 und DU145 weder über Akt noch über ERK1/2 Strahlenresistenz vermittelt wird. Die Versuche zu Strahlenresistenz vermittelnden Mechanismen ergaben, dass VEGF-C in unbestrahlten PC-3-Zellen die Autophagie fördert, NRP-2 jedoch nicht. Unter Bestrahlung war ein Effekt von VEGF-C und NRP-2 auf die Autophagie nicht reproduzierbar nachweisbar. Ein weiterer Versuch hat gezeigt, dass in PC-3 Autophagie keinen Einfluss auf das klonogene Überleben nach Bestrahlung hat. Außerdem wurde festgestellt, dass VEGF-C in PC-3 die DNA-Doppelstrangbruch-Reparatur nicht beeinflusst. Darüber hinaus wurde nachgewiesen, dass eine Verminderung des VEGF-C-Gehalts in PC-3 zum G2/M-Arrest führt. In DU145 konnte jedoch kein Effekt beobachtet werden. In den Untersuchungen zum Einfluss von Akt auf die Strahlenresistenz unabhängig von VEGF-C und NRP-2 wirkte Nelfinavir inhibierend auf die Akt-Phosphorylierung am Ser473 und beeinflusste das klonogene Überleben von PC-3-Zellen minimal. In PC-3-Xenografts führte Nelfinavir zu keiner Tumorwachstumsverzögerung und wirkte in vitro und in vivo nicht strahlensensibilisierend. Schlussfolgerung In den Versuchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass VEGF-C in Prostatakarzinomzellen Strahlenresistenz vermittelt. Diese Erkenntnis könnte als ein Forschungsansatz zur Entwicklung einer kombinierten Therapie aus VEGF-C-Blockade und Bestrahlung dienen. Ein potentieller Mechanismus, über den VEGF-C die Strahlenresistenz vermittelt, ist, in Abhängigkeit von der Zelllinie, die Aufhebung des G2/M-Arrests. NRP-2 wirkt in der Vermittlung von Strahlenresistenz beziehungsweise sensibilität je nach Zelllinie unterschiedlich. Hierzu sollten weitere Untersuchungen bezüglich möglicher Interaktionen innerhalb anderer Signalwege mit strahlensensibilisierendem Einfluss erfolgen. Innerhalb des untersuchten Signalwegs konnte weiterhin festgestellt werden, dass VEGF-C Strahlenresistenz nicht über Akt vermittelt. Die vorliegende Arbeit enthält die erste Studie sowohl zur Untersuchung des Einflusses von Nelfinavir in Kombination mit Bestrahlung auf das Überleben von Prostatakarzinomzellen in vitro als auch auf die Tumorwachstumszeit und die lokale Tumorkontrolle in vivo. Hierin konnte keine strahlensensibilisierende Wirkung von Nelfinavir nachgewiesen werden. Da Nelfinavir in Zellen anderer Tumorentitäten strahlensensibilisierend wirkt und außerdem bekannt ist, dass es in eine Reihe von Signalwegen eingreift, die das Zellüberleben fördern oder hemmen, sollte weiter geklärt werden, ob Tumorzellen mit einem bestimmten genetischen Profil besser auf die Behandlung mit Nelfinavir ansprechen. / Background In addition to radical prostatectomy, radiotherapy is a standard therapy for the treatment of prostate tumours and leads to good results for local tumour control and survival. However, as with the resection, the risk of recurrence for advanced tumours is relatively high compared to tumours in earlier stages. Therefore, there is a high urgency to improve radiotherapy especially for advanced stages. One approach is the combination of irradiation with molecular therapies. The aim is to block certain target proteins to increase the radiosensitivity of the prostate carcinoma cells. A potential target could be the blockade of the VEGF-C/NRP-2/Akt signalling pathway (VEGF-C – vascular endothelial growth factor C; NRP-2 – neuropilin 2; Akt – protein kinase B). In prostate cancer the concentrations of VEGF-C and NRP-2 are increased compared to normal prostate cells. Studies have shown that both proteins have a progressive effect on tumourigenesis. In preliminary work Muders et al. (2009) also showed the activation of Akt via the VEGF-C/NRP-2 axis and a resistance to H2O2 induced oxidative stress. Akt also has a protective effect against irradiation in various tumour entities. It is assumed that this also applies to prostate carcinoma cells. Aim of the study Within the framework of this thesis, it was investigated whether and via which mechanism VEGF-C, NRP-2, and Akt affect the radioresistance in prostate carcinoma cell lines. Methods In vitro and in vivo experiments were performed in the human prostate carcinoma cell lines PC-3, DU145, LNCaP, as well as in PC-3 xenografts. The influence of VEGF-C and NRP-2 on the radioresistance was examined in vitro after knock down of the corresponding genes using siRNA or after supplementation with human recombinant VEGF-C in colony formation assays. In order to determine the influence of VEGF-C and NRP-2 on possible cell survival mechanisms, the autophagic flux was examined after the blockade of autophagy with bafilomycin A1 using western blot, the DNA double strand break repair by quantification of the γH2AX foci, and the cell cycle distribution by flow cytometry. The signal transduction of VEGF-C via Akt as well as, as a further possibility, the signal transduction via ERK1/2 were tested after siRNA transfection with and without irradiation using western blot. Further experiments on Akt were performed in vitro and in vivo with the PI3K/Akt inhibitor nelfinavir in PC-3 cells. The in vitro effect of nelfinavir on radioresistance was tested using a colony formation assay after treatment of the cells with 10 μM nelfinavir. In vivo, the effect of nelfinavir without and in combination with irradiation in PC-3 xenografts was investigated in nude mice. For the determination of the tumour growth time, the mice were treated with 80 mg nelfinavir/kg body weight 30 times within 6 weeks. In a further experiment, the local tumour control was determined with simultaneous fractionated irradiation with total doses of 30 to 120 Gy and a follow-up time of 180 days. Results The investigations on radioresistance via the VEGF-C/NRP-2/Akt signalling pathway showed that in the three prostate carcinoma cell lines PC-3, DU145, and LNCaP VEGF-C significantly mediates radioresistance. For NRP-2 however, it was found that, depending on the cell line, it either leads to radioresistance (DU145) or radiosensitization (PC-3). Further, it was shown that in PC-3 and DU145 VEGF-C does not mediate radioresistance via Akt or ERK1/2. The experiments on radioresistance mediating mechanisms revealed that VEGF-C promotes autophagy in untreated PC-3 cells, but NRP-2 does not. Under irradiation, an effect of VEGF-C and NRP-2 on autophagy could not be detected reproducibly. A further experiment has shown that in PC-3 autophagy has no influence on the clonogenic survival after irradiation. In addition, it was found that VEGF-C does not affect the DNA double strand break repair in PC-3. Furthermore, it was shown that a reduction in the VEGF-C content leads to a G2/M arrest in PC-3. However, no effect could be observed in DU145. In studies regarding the influence of Akt on radioresistance independent of VEGF-C and NRP-2, nelfinavir inhibited Akt phosphorylation at Ser473 and minimally affected the clonogenic survival of PC-3 cells. In PC-3 xenografts, nelfinavir did not lead to any tumour growth delay and did not have a radiosensitizing effect in vitro or in vivo. Conclusion In the experiments, it was shown that VEGF-C mediates radioresistance in prostate cancer cells. This finding could serve as a research approach for the development of a combined therapy of a VEGF-C blockade and irradiation. A potential mechanism by which VEGF-C mediates radioresistance is the reverse of the G2/M arrest, depending on the cell line. NRP-2 acts differently in the mediation of radioresistance or radiosensitivity, depending on the cell line. On this, further investigations should be carried out with regard to possible interactions within other signalling pathways with a radiosensitizing influence. Within the investigated signalling pathway, it was further shown that VEGF-C does not mediate radioresistance via Akt. The present work contains the first study examining the effect of nelfinavir in combination with irradiation on prostate cancer cell survival in vitro as well as on growth time and local tumour control in vivo. Herein no radiosensitizing effects of nelfinavir could be detected. Since nelfinavir radiosensitizes cells of other tumour entities and is also known to interfere with a series of signalling pathways that promote or inhibit cell survival, it should be clarified whether tumour cells with a particular genetic profile are more responsive to treatment with nelfinavir.

Un modèle de croissance et de réponse à la radiothérapie pour le glioblastome multiforme (GBM) basé le formalisme du modèle de prolifération-invasion (PI) et du modèle linéaire-quadratique a été développé et implémenté. La géométrie spécifique au patient est considérée en modélisant, d'une part, les voies d'invasion possibles des GBM avec l'imagerie du tenseur de diffusion (DTI) et, d'autre part, les barrières à la propagation à partir des images anatomiques disponibles. La distribution de dose réelle reçue par un patient donné est appliquée telle quelle dans les simulations, en respectant l'horaire de traitement. Les paramètres libres du modèle (taux de prolifération, coefficient de diffusion, paramètres radiobiologiques) sont choisis aléatoirement à partir de distributions de valeurs plausibles. Un total de 400 ensembles de valeurs pour les paramètres libres sont ainsi choisis pour tous les patients, et une simulation de la croissance et de la réponse au traitement est effectuée pour chaque patient et chaque ensemble de paramètres. Un critère de récidive est appliqué sur les résultats de chaque simulation pour identifier un lieu probable de récidive (SPR). La superposition de tous les SPR obtenus pour un patient donné permet de définir la probabilité d'occurrence (OP). Il est démontré qu'il existe des valeurs de OP élevées pour tous les patients, impliquant que les résultats du modèle PI ne sont pas très sensibles aux valeurs des paramètres utilisés. Il est également démontré comment le formalisme développé dans cet ouvrage pourrait permettre de définir un volume cible personnalisé pour les traitements de radiothérapie du GBM. / We have developed and implemented a model of growth and response to radiotherapy for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) based on the proliferation-invasion (PI) formalism and linear-quadratic model. We take into account patient-specific geometry to model the possible invasion pathways of GBM with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and the barriers to dispersal from anatomical images available. The actual dose distribution received by a given patient is applied as such in the simulation, respecting the treatment schedule. The free parameters in the model (proliferation rate, diffusion coefficient, radiobiological parameters) are randomly chosen from a distribution of plausible values. A total of 400 sets of values for the free parameters are thus chosen for all patients, and a simulation of the growth and the response to treatment is performed for each patient and each set of parameters. A failure criterion is applied to the results of each simulation to identify a site of potential recurrence (SPR). The superposition of all SPR obtained for a given patient defines the occurrence probability (OP). We show that high OP values exist for all patients and conclude that the PI model results are not very sensitive to the values of the parameters used. Finally, we show how the formalism developed in this work could help to define a custom target volume for radiation treatment of GBM.