Esta tese de doutorado faz a análise das controvérsias referentes à construção do fato científico das mudanças climáticas entre os anos de 1970 a 2005 nas revistas Science e Nature, tendo como hipótese norteadora do estudo a noção de que a política foi um elemento definidor dos debates ocorridos nas páginas dessas publicações. Circunscrevemos nosso espaço de análise no contexto histórico referente aos Estados Unidos da América, por considerarmos que foi este país que articulou os principais acordos políticos e também os maiores impasses na execução desses, além dos grupos de pesquisa sobre o clima estudados estarem aí localizados. Esses trinta e cinco anos tiveram três eixos temáticos discutidos sob a denominação de mudanças climáticas: aquecimento global, degradação da camada de ozônio e inverno nuclear. Todos tiveram momentos específicos de hegemonia, estando presentes em textos de autoria de cientistas, editores, repórteres, burocratas e especialistas em diversas áreas do conhecimento. No ano de 1970 tivemos as primeiras discussões sobre a degradação da camada de ozônio, de caráter teórico, mas que suscitaram amplos debates relacionados à possibilidade real de tal fato acontecer. Ainda nos anos 1970, o aquecimento global teve um primeiro período de hegemonia, quando foi questionada a validade de seu enunciado em relação ao do resfriamento global. Ambos os temas foram sobrepujados a partir de 1983 pelo inverno nuclear, divulgado pelo grupo sob a sigla TTAPS liderado pelo astrofísico estadunidense Carl Sagan. O enunciado, relacionado diretamente à Guerra Fria, foi discutido na década de 1980 e sumiu paulatinamente do cenário científico no início dos anos 1990. De 1987 em diante, a degradação da camada de ozônio foi retomando seu protagonismo nas controvérsias, baseada então em estudos empíricos, quando os cientistas identificaram um buraco na camada acima da Antártica. Desde 1988 o aquecimento global está sendo discutido pela comunidade científica, mas retorna ao centro das atenções apenas em 1998, como resultado da assinatura, por muitos países, do Protocolo de Kioto e do consenso científico que este teria provocado. A hegemonia do aquecimento global foi analisada até o ano de 2005, quando uma série de dúvidas colocam em jogo o consenso e o acordo estabelecido em Kioto. Por fim, procuramos montar esse mosaico de enunciados e suas controvérsias, tendo como base teórica a História das Ciências / This thesis analyzes the controversies regarding the construction of the scientific fact of climate change in the journals Science and Nature from 1970 to 2005, guided by the hypothesis that politics is a defining element in the discussions. We circumscribe our analysis in the historical context of the United States of America, reckoning they both articulated the major political agreements and the biggest dilemmas in implementing them, besides the research groups on climate studied here being located in this country. We identified three main themes discussed under the name of climate change: global warming, depletion of the ozone layer and nuclear winter. Each had specific moments of hegemony, present in texts written by scientists, editors, reporters, bureaucrats and experts in various fields of knowledge. In 1970, the first theoretical discussions on the depletion of the ozone layer appeared causing extensive controversies related to the real possibility of such an event to happen. In the 1970s, global warming gained an initial period of hegemony as the validity of the statement was questioned in relation to global cooling. In 1983, nuclear winter overpasses both themes, disclosed by the group known as TTAPS, led by the American astrophysicist Carl Sagan. The enunciation stood in direct relation to the Cold War and was present in the first years of 1980s and gradually fading from the scientific scene in the early 1990s. From 1987 onwards, degradation of the ozone layer resumed its role in the controversy based on empirical studies when scientists identified a hole in the layer above Antarctica. Since 1988, the scientific community had discussed global warming but it comes back into focus only in 1998 as a result the Kyoto Protocol and the scientific consensus that this would have caused. We analyze the hegemony of global warming until 2005 when a series of questions puts consensus and the Kyoto agreement at stake. Finally, we seek to build this mosaic of enunciations and controversies on the theoretical ground of the History of Science

Quando nos deparamos com a imagem do personagem Capitão América tendemos a relacioná-lo com um herói confiante, tão patriótico que veste a bandeira de seu país. O super-herói, criado por Joe Simon e Jack Kirby na década de 1940, ao longo do século XX se transformou em um ícone tão representativo da nação americana quanto o próprio Tio Sam. Nesta dissertação nos propomos a analisar os aspectos centrais do discurso patriótico contido na revista Captain America Comics, publicada nos Estados Unidos entre os anos de 1941 e 1954. Seguindo a metodologia americana, analisamos as publicações observando como esta mídia, ciente de sua influência na cultura popular e seu papel como um meio de comunicação de massa, busca entreter e formar a opinião do público leitor, acompanhando as transformações do país durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial e nos anos que a seguiram. / When we faced the image of the character Captain America we tend to relate him with a confident and such patriotic superhero that even wears the flag of his country. The superhero, created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby in the 1940s, during the 20th century became an icon as representative of the American nation as Uncle Sam itself. In this M.A. thesis we intent to examine the most significant aspects of the patriotic speech contained in the comic book Captain America Comics, published in the United States between 1941 and 1954. Following the American methodology, we analyzed the publications noting how this media, aware of its influence on popular culture and its role as a mass communication media, tries to entertain as also form the opinion of the readership, accompanying the transformations of the country duringWorldWar II and the years that followed.

Thesis (Ph. D. (International Politics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2016 / The United States of America’s (US) foreign policy towards Africa has been the subject for debate. This is partly because the country’s relationship with African countries is not consistent. By and large, such relations are shaped by a number of factors which include political orientation and material resources. Within this context, the present study uses case studies from two different parts of Africa to tease out US foreign policy towards Africa. This explorative study uses Ghana and the United Republic of Tanzania (hereafter referred to as Tanzania) as test cases to compare and critique the post-Cold War foreign policy of the US towards Africa. It does this by first analysing and constructing the theoretical material on the three pillars of the US Africa policy (oil, democracy and security) and subsequently, contemporaneously locating the US relationship with Ghana and Tanzania. Largely, the study carries a historical sensibility as it traces the US relationship with Ghana and Tanzania from as far as the colonial era. History is crucial in this regard because the past provides a sound basis for understanding the present and future. To add, in International Politics theory holds sway and history is used as a laboratory. In this thesis, the researcher proposes Afrocentricity as an alternative theoretical paradigm crucial in understanding US foreign policy towards Africa. As it shall be seen, such a paradigm (theoretical lens) remains critical in highlighting the peculiarity of the US relationship with Ghana and Tanzania. It is envisaged that a deeper understanding of the US foreign policy towards Ghana and Tanzania is achievable when its analysis and interpretation is located within a broader continental context of Africa. To realise the purpose of this study, the researcher relies methodologically on interdisciplinary critical discourse and conversations in their widest forms. With reference to the test cases for this study, the agenda for democratic consolidation features prominently on both of them while oil is only applicable to Ghana in this regard. In contrast, Tanzania distinguishes itself both as a victim of terrorism and equally so as a strategic partner on the US anti-terrorism efforts in East Africa. Yet, oil in West Africa’s Ghana is important for the US both as an economic resource and a strategic energy source during wartime periods. Overall the ‘differential’ foreign policy towards individual African states is also a significant observation which dispels the myth of a universal US foreign policy framework. Keywords: Africa, Afrocentricity, democracy, East Africa, foreign policy, Ghana, oil, security, Tanzania, United States of America, West Africa.

Le but de cette thèse est de comprendre pourquoi la poésie d’Adrienne Rich (1929-2012), autrice étatsunienne majeure, est absente du champ littéraire français. Poétesse prolifique, Adrienne Rich reçut de nombreux prix littéraires tout au long de sa carrière. Essayiste, elle fut une théoricienne du mouvement féministe étatsunien. Des recueils de ses poèmes ont été publiés dans une vingtaine de langues dans le monde. En français, une quinzaine de poèmes d’Adrienne Rich a été traduite et publiée sur divers supports (anthologies, revues littéraires, blogs). Un recueil a été conçu en collaboration avec la poétesse, mais il n’a jamais été publié à ce jour. Malgré différentes tentatives pour accueillir la poésie d’Adrienne Rich en France (traduction de ses essais, inscription au programme de l’agrégation, lecture en librairie) elle est toujours en 2019 dans une situation ambiguë de présence mais d’invisibilité pour le lectorat français. Nous chercherons donc à expliquer cette réception en suspens en examinant d’abord les traductions de poèmes d’Adrienne Rich publiés en français. Qui en sont les auteurs et autrices ? Quelles sont leurs pratiques et les caractéristiques de leurs traductions ? Leurs travaux s’inscrivent dans le sous-champ éditorial de la poésie traduite en France qui sera analysé pour en identifier les dynamiques, les acteurs et actrices, les supports de diffusion. À la lumière de ces analyses qui relèvent de la sociologie de la traduction et de la réception, nous comparerons le cas de la poésie d’Adrienne Rich avec d’autres poètes mais surtout d’autres poétesses étatsuniennes contemporaines. Dans ce contexte de réception, il faut aussi prendre en compte l’histoire des idées. En effet, l’œuvre d’Adrienne Rich est marquée par l’engagement féministe de l’autrice, ce qui représente une caractéristique significative pour le transfert culturel que constitue la traduction. Nous nous intéresserons donc à l’histoire des mouvements mais aussi des courants de pensée féministes aux États-Unis et en France depuis les années 1960. Enfin, dans une démarche prospective, ce travail se propose d’envisager les modalités de conception d’un recueil de poèmes d’Adrienne Rich traduits en français à l’aune de l’analyse du champ éditorial de la poésie en France et d’une lecture microtextuelle des poèmes déjà traduits. Nous illustrerons cette réflexion par des traductions ou retraductions de quelques textes : comment traduire une poésie féministe ? / The aim of this thesis is to understand why the poetry of Adrienne Rich (1929-2012), the major United States poet, is absent from the French literary field. Adrienne Rich was awarded numerous literary prizes throughout her prolific career. As an essayist, she was one of the first theorists of the feminist movement in the United States. Collections of her poems have been published in almost twenty languages worldwide. In French, fifteen of her poems have been translated and published in different forms (anthologies, literary magazines, blogs). A collection was being drawn up in collaboration with the poet, but to this day has never been released. Despite several attempts to introduce her work in France—some of her essays have been translated, a collection of her poems was in the agrégation curriculum, and she was invited to read her work in a bookshop—in 2019 it remains largely invisible to French readers. This thesis will thus try to explain this “arrested” reception first by examining the translations of Rich’s poems which have been published in French. Who translated her poetry? How can we characterise their translations? Their work is part of the French subfield of translated poetry which will be analysed so as to identify what is at stake, who is involved and how the poetry is distributed. In the light of these analyses which come under the sociology of translation and of reception, the case of Adrienne Rich’s poetry will be compared with other US male and especially female poets from the same period. In this reception context, addressing the history of ideas is crucial. Indeed, Adrienne Rich’s work is marked by her engagement with feminism, which is a significant element in the cultural transfer which translation represents. As such, the history of feminist movements and theories in France and the United States since the 1960s will be subjected to close analysis. Lastly, in a prospective approach, this thesis will focus on the conditions for the possible publication of a collection of Adrienne Rich’s poetry translated into French, in light of the analysis of the publishing field of poetry in France and of a microtextual reading of her previously published poems. These considerations will be illustrated by new translations or retranslations of selected poems. At the heart of this research lies the question: how is feminist poetry to be translated?

Le spiritisme apparaît comme un mouvement religieux populaire qui emphatise les charismes aux États-Unis autour de 1848. Traversant l’Atlantique, il revêt la forme d’une doctrine aux influences progressistes et anti-cléricales sous la plume d’Allan Kardec, son « codificateur » français, qui lui donne son patronyme en 1858. Enfin, il connaît une « religiosification » au Brésil dans les décennies qui suivent. Le kardécisme moderne est aujourd’hui considéré comme l’une des religions les plus importantes de ce pays, et compte des adeptes partout dans le monde. Ce travail s’intéresse d’abord à la pratique kardéciste contemporaine sur les trois continents historiques de son élaboration. L’ethnographie comparée des centres visités dans la Bay Area de San Francisco (États-Unis), à Paris (France) et à Salvador de Bahia (Brésil) montre une stabilisation du kardécisme autour de références communes. Les profils des « convertis », les modi operandi, les caractéristiques et le statut du savoir au sein des groupes sont autant d’éléments qui pointent la constitution d’une identité spirite transnationale uniformisée en dépit d’adaptations marginales des pratiques localement. Dans un second temps, le kardécisme retiendra notre attention en tant qu’avatar initiatique. Le travail sur soi, moral et expérimental, qu’exigent l’apprentissage médiumnique et la réforme intime, les deux piliers de la doctrine, est vecteur d’une transformation ontologique – pivot de la logique initiatique. En effet, l’initiation promeut un « changement de statut » chez l’aspirant à l’initiation. Mais l’initiation consiste aussi à instiller un sens du sacré. Là encore, l’interaction médiumnique est le siège d’un certain mystère. Si ces caractéristiques de l’initiation semblent préservées dans le kardécisme moderne, c’est sous une forme diluée, rationalisée – dès lors, le kardécisme ne témoigne-t-il pas des déplacements du sacré? / Spiritualism appeared in the USA around 1848 as a popular religious movement which emphasized charisma. Crossing the Atlantic Ocean it took on the form of a doctrine influenced by progressivism and anticlericalism as instigated by Allan Kardec, its French “codifier” who named it in 1848. Finally it underwent a “religiosification” in Brazil in the following decades. Nowadays modern Kardecism is considered to be one of the prevailing religions in Brazil and has followers all over the world. This research aims, first, to deal with contemporary Kardecist observance on the three historical continents of its elaboration. The comparative ethnography of the centers visited in San Francisco’s Bay Area (USA), in Paris (France) and in Salvador (Bahia, Brazil) reveals a stabilization of Kardecism around common references. The profiles of the “converts”, the procedures, and the characteristics and status of knowledge within the groups are all elements that point to the formation of a transnational Kardecist identity standardized despite minor variations in local practices. Secondly, we will focus on Kardecism as an initiatic manifestation. Concern for the self, both moral and experimental, required by the learning of mediumship and the “personal reform” which are the two pillars of the doctrine, is central to an ontological transformation, the mainspring of the initiatic process. Indeed initiation promotes a “change of status” in the personhood of the candidate for initiation. But initiation also involves awakening a sense of the Sacred in the candidate. However, the mediumnic interaction – i.e. the relationship between the medium and his/her spirits – remains somehow mysterious. These mentioned characteristics of initiation do seem preserved in modern Kardecism but in a diluted, rationalized form. Can then Kardecism help recognize the evolutions of the Sacred ? / O Espiritismo aparece como um movimento religioso popular que enfatiza os carismas nos Estados Unidos por volta de 1848. Cruzando o Atlântico, assume a forma de uma doutrina de influências progressistas e anti-clericais nos escritos de Allan Kardec, seu "codificador" francês, que lhe dá seu nome em 1858. Finalmente, experimenta uma "religiosificação" no Brasil nas décadas que se seguem. O kardecismo moderno é hoje considerado uma das religiões mais importantes deste país, e conta com seguidores em todo o mundo. Este trabalho se interessa principalmente com a prática kardecista contemporânea nos três continentes históricos do seu desenvolvimento. A etnografia comparativa dos centros visitados na área da baía de São Francisco (EUA), Paris (França) e Salvador da Bahia (Brasil) mostra uma estabilização do kardecismo em torno de referências comuns. O perfil dos "convertidos", os modi operandi, as características e status de conhecimento dentro do grupo são elementos que apontam a constituição de uma identidade espírita transnacional padronizada, apesar das adaptações marginais de práticas locais. Em segundo lugar, o kardecismo retêm nossa atenção como um avatar iniciático. O trabalho sob si mesmo, moral e experimental, exigido pelo ensino mediúnico e pela reforma íntima, os dois pilares da doutrina, é vetor de uma transformação ontológica – pivô da lógica iniciática. Na verdade, a iniciação promove uma "mudança de status" no aspirante à iniciação. Mas a iniciação consiste também em incutir um sentido do sagrado. Mais uma vez, a interação mediúnica é a sede de um certo mistério. Essas características de iniciação parecem preservadas no kardecismo moderno de uma forma diluída, racionalizada – mostraria, portanto, o kardecismo a circulação do Sagrado ?

The Tongass National Forest in southeast Alaska contains 2,176 square kilometers of karst. As part of the evolving Tongass Land Management Plan, research into the function of karst systems is crucial in understanding how forest management affects not only karst areas but also surrounding ecosystems. Dye trace and water balance results in two watersheds on the north end of Prince of Wales Island demonstrate the difficulty in containing the effects of management, as water can enter karst catchments from unknown sources at different flow regimes. A dye trace was conducted in Windgate and Canyon Block watersheds. Two sinking streams were traced to one resurgence spring in Canyon Block, and four sinking streams were traced to one resurgence spring in Windgate. Water balance data calculated for the entire study period and individual storm events suggests that Windgate has been sufficiently delineated. Data from the study period and storm event water balance calculations for Canyon Block suggest that at high flow discharge is pirated into Canyon Block from another system. High resolution monitoring in each catchment show that there is no significant delay between the increase in discharge and the arrival of direct runoff, as evidenced by the quick decrease in specific conductance. This could result in a quick transmission of sediment and contaminants through the karst system into downstream salmon habitat.

Ce texte a pour ambition d'expliquer les tenants et aboutissants de la brevetabilité des logiciels. Dans cette optique, notre première partie consistera à poser les bases du débat. Cela sera notamment fait en analysant les raisons pour lesquelles la brevetabilité des logiciels a été consacrée. Le texte mettra ainsi l'emphase sur l'inefficacité du droit d'auteur à protéger les logiciels. En outre, l'étude du mécanisme du brevet nous montrera que ce dernier constituait une solution plus adaptée que le droit d'auteur à la protection des logiciels. Ensuite, dans le cadre d'une seconde partie, il s'agira d'analyser le phénomène de la brevetabilité en tant que telle, au travers de notre champ d'étude, en l'occurrence le Canada, les États-Unis et les États européens. Cela consistera tout d'abord à apprécier l'ampleur du phénomène, à savoir s'il s'est plus ou moins développé en fonction de tel(s) ou tel(s) État(s). Les États-Unis ayant pleinement consacré la brevetabilité des logiciels, quand d'autres l'ont plus ou moins rejeté, le texte, se focalisant principalement sur la société américaine, analysera les conséquences engendrées par cette adoption, notamment en terme de concurrence et d'innovation. En outre, afin de pouvoir apprécier l'opportunité de la brevetabilité des logiciels, une comparaison de l'état du système de brevet américain avec les systèmes canadien et français sera nécessaire. Un constat assez pessimiste à l'égard de l'actuelle brevetabilité des logiciels étant alors établi, le texte proposera des aménagements au système des brevets afin que l'innovation et la concurrence dans le secteur du logiciel soit préservée ou rétablie. / The purpose of this text is to explain the issues of software patentability. From this perspective our first part will set up the background of the debate. It will be done in particular by analysing the reasons why software patentability was adopted. The text will thus emphasize the ineffectiveness of copyright in protecting software. Moreover a study of the patent mechanism will reveal that this system is better suited to protect software than copyright is. Next, within the second part we will analyse the patentability phenomenom as it relates to our field of study, namely, Canada, the United States of America and European countries. First of aIl, this will consist in assessing the scope of the phenomenom, that is to say if it is more or less developed in a given country. Insofar as the United States of America has totally accepted the patentability software, while sorne other countries have more or less rejected it, the text, focusing mainly on the American society, will analyse the consequences generated by the adoption of this notion (i.e., the patentability of software), in particular considering competition and innovation. Moreover, in order to evaluate software patentability is a more opportune choice, a comparison between the American patent system with the Canadian and French ones will be necessary. A rather pessimistic conclusion regarding the current acceptance of software patentability being drawn, the text will suggest sorne adjustments to the patent system in order to preserve or restore innovation and competition into the software market. / Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit (L.LM.)

The American Civil War resulted in lasting consequences for the British Empire’s remote Pacific colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island. Britons in the colonies mobilized to address the issue of defending against a potential American attack. Despite concerns surrounding the possibility of an American invasion, the conflict increased solidarity towards the United States, as public opinion in British Columbia and Vancouver Island became more pro-Union through the course of the American Civil War, with local residents regularly celebrating holidays like the Fourth of July. Local newspapers welcomed efforts by the American government to finally abolish slave labour, yet Victoria’s African American community continued to face racial discrimination, which was often blamed on resident Southerners. The conflict ultimately helped in improving public perceptions of the United States, but not without raising significant fears of American military might on the continent. / Graduate

Despite (national) strategies/frameworks for care at the end of life, many patients do not die at their preferred location or under the form of care desired. This cross-country comparison study analyzed system-level characteristics - such as legislation, regulation and financing - that might influence service delivery in the care for terminally ill adults and their implications for outcomes and costs. Drawing on triangulated data from Canada, England, Germany and the United States of America and taking a 'most similar – most different' perspective, it was hypothesized that system-level factors might impede the broader use of (integrated) models of hospice and palliative care/the system-wide adoption of best practices. An embedded case study examined resource utilization and costs of shared care and its role as a potential best practice avenue. While similar with regard to leading causes of death, patient needs and potential avenues to care, different service models were employed – including hospice and palliative care. Generally offered alongside standard care along the disease continuum and across settings - and featuring common elements like physical, psycho-social and spiritual care - outcomes (e.g., access, utilization) varied. Legislative (e.g., jurisdictional), regulatory (including education and training) and financial issues were identified as barriers, as were public knowledge and perception ('giving up hope') challenges. Advance care planning, dedicated and stable funding, population aging and standards of practice/guidelines to care were seen as facilitators. Successful policy implementation requires concerted action to align system-level characteristics – with each alone being essential but not sufficient. Policies need to be monitored and fine-tuned, with a caveat toward their transferability between jurisdictions. The analysis of the shared-care approach in the rural Niagara-West setting revealed effective and efficient home-based hospice and palliative care – on par with per diem funding for long-term care homes and lower than average alternate level of care and hospital costs in Ontario, and in line with the Medicare Hospice Benefits in the United States of America. The thesis results provide a base for further analyses across jurisdictions and settings and might assist decision makers in the allocation of resources to meet the complex needs of hospice and palliative care populations.

Despite (national) strategies/frameworks for care at the end of life, many patients do not die at their preferred location or under the form of care desired. This cross-country comparison study analyzed system-level characteristics - such as legislation, regulation and financing - that might influence service delivery in the care for terminally ill adults and their implications for outcomes and costs. Drawing on triangulated data from Canada, England, Germany and the United States of America and taking a 'most similar – most different' perspective, it was hypothesized that system-level factors might impede the broader use of (integrated) models of hospice and palliative care/the system-wide adoption of best practices. An embedded case study examined resource utilization and costs of shared care and its role as a potential best practice avenue. While similar with regard to leading causes of death, patient needs and potential avenues to care, different service models were employed – including hospice and palliative care. Generally offered alongside standard care along the disease continuum and across settings - and featuring common elements like physical, psycho-social and spiritual care - outcomes (e.g., access, utilization) varied. Legislative (e.g., jurisdictional), regulatory (including education and training) and financial issues were identified as barriers, as were public knowledge and perception ('giving up hope') challenges. Advance care planning, dedicated and stable funding, population aging and standards of practice/guidelines to care were seen as facilitators. Successful policy implementation requires concerted action to align system-level characteristics – with each alone being essential but not sufficient. Policies need to be monitored and fine-tuned, with a caveat toward their transferability between jurisdictions. The analysis of the shared-care approach in the rural Niagara-West setting revealed effective and efficient home-based hospice and palliative care – on par with per diem funding for long-term care homes and lower than average alternate level of care and hospital costs in Ontario, and in line with the Medicare Hospice Benefits in the United States of America. The thesis results provide a base for further analyses across jurisdictions and settings and might assist decision makers in the allocation of resources to meet the complex needs of hospice and palliative care populations.