Inspiré par la réflexion quant aux nouvelles formes d’organisation du travail de la nouvelle économie, ce mémoire s’intéresse à la question des heures supplémentaires non formellement rémunérées chez une frange de travailleurs hautement qualifiés, les concepteurs de jeux vidéo. Très innovantes pour les employeurs, ces formes d’organisation, en particulier l’organisation par projets, ne sont pas sans poser des problèmes aux travailleurs. À l’instar des travailleurs du savoir qui sont souvent prêts à investir de longues heures au travail, les concepteurs de jeux vidéo travaillent fréquemment en heures supplémentaires. Or ces heures supplémentaires sont non seulement non rémunérées, mais elles sont aussi longues et fréquentes. Comment en vient-on à faire accepter aux concepteurs cette situation, sans toutefois exiger d’eux qu’ils travaillent en heures supplémentaires? Pour explorer cette question, les discours de 53 concepteurs de jeux vidéo montréalais ont été analysés. Les résultats de cette recherche dévoilent une explication basée sur un système informel de récompenses et de châtiments qui induit chez la majorité des concepteurs de jeux interrogés une propension à travailler en heures supplémentaires non rémunérées. / Inspired by the reflection made on the new forms of work organization system brought by the new economy, this M. Sc. Thesis is interested in unlimited overtime informally compensated for, among a highly skilled group of workers: video game developers. Innovative from employer’s standpoint, these types of organization system, in particular the project-based system does generate problems for the workers. Like the knowledge workers who are willing to invest long hours of work, the video game developers frequently work overtime. Not only is this overtime unpaid, but also it is long and frequent. How does management come to make the developers consent to such a demand, without requiring them to work overtime? To explore this question, we analyzed the interviews done with 53 designers from the Montreal’s video game industry. Indeed, interviews revealed that a majority of game developers make unlimited unpaid overtime on a regular basis. The results of this research offer an explanation based on an informal system of rewards and punishments.

Since the 1980s, practically all of the western welfare states have developed social policies, which aim at shifting the responsibilities for welfare services from the state to the family, the civil society or to the market. In Sweden, this political transformation has particularly hit the public eldercare. In the last twenty years, the percentage of the population 65 years and older receiving public home help services in Sweden has decreased from 23 to 8 per cent at the same time as the number of beds in hospitalized eldercare has been heavily reduced. Moreover, during the course of the 2000s, the majority of the Swedish municipalities have reintroduced means testing of the eldercare based on whether the elderly have relatives or not that can perform the services. Parallel with these downsizes in the publicly financed and organized eldercare; privately produced eldercare services have increased, carried out by large and internationally own business corporations. Based on an theoretical framework, which combines the historical approach within the neo-institutional research tradition with a discursive method of analysis, this thesis explores if the period from the 1980s and onwards has been a formative moment in Swedish eldercare during which new ideas have become embedded in the institutional frameworks regulating the division of responsibility for eldercare services between the state, the family and the market. To examine if and how the municipalities, which are principally responsible for organizing and financing the public eldercare in Sweden, have implemented the change in ideas that have emerged in national politics since the 1980s, the thesis also examines how the eldercare has developed in two of Sweden’s municipalities since the 1980s. The results of the thesis demonstrates that the period from the 1980s and onwards has been a formative moment in the Swedish eldercare during which new ideas regarding the public responsibility for eldercare service have emerged and become institutionalized. Since the 1980s, senior citizens’ need for care has increasingly been re-interpreted from a public to a private issue with the consequence that today, their need for certain services, in particular those related to housework, are no longer regarded to be a public responsibility but a private matter that the elderly will have to solve, either by buying the services on the market, or, by asking relatives for help and assistance. The main problem connected with this reprivatization of senior citizens’ need for care is, however, that as the state has withdrawn its responsibility, women, in their role of being wives, daughters, or daughters-in-laws, have been forced to step in as informal and unpaid providers of care. Therefore, regardless of political reigns and modes of production, women have been forced to taken on an increasingly larger responsibility for their elderly relatives.

The Labour Supply of Unpaid Caregivers in Canada, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Meredith Lenore Lilly, Department of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, 2008. As medical care increasingly shifts from the hospital to the home, responsibility for care has also shifted from the state and paid care, to the family and unpaid care. Unpaid caregivers are family members and friends who provide homecare services to recipients in their place of residence without financial compensation, as a result of their close personal relationships. This research tests the multiple hypotheses that unpaid caregiving has an impact on (1) the probability of labour force participation (LFP); (2) hours of labour force work; and (3) earnings by caregivers in Canada. We analyzed the 1996 and 2002 General Social Surveys, applying multivariate probit, logistic, and OLS regression analyses to four equations: 1) the probability of labour force participation; 2) the hourly wage; 3) weekly hours of labour market work; and 4) the probability of being an unpaid caregiver. Results indicate that unpaid caregiving was negatively associated with labour force participation; however, the impact on hours of labour market work and wages was uncertain. Women and men caregivers were impacted differently: only caregiving men in 1996 had significantly lower wages than non-caregivers, and only women in 1996 worked significantly fewer hours in the labour market. When caregiving was defined broadly, only men in 1996 were significantly less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. Yet when we controlled for caregiving intensity in 2002, both male and female primary caregivers were much less likely to be in the labour force than non-caregivers, while secondary caregivers were no less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. We conclude that when caregiving responsibilities are relatively small, individuals seem able to balance both caregiving with employment. Yet when caregiving commitments become heavy, it becomes increasingly difficult to balance employment with caregiving. We make a number of policy recommendations ranging from improving caregiver access to financial supports, formal care and respite services, particularly for primary caregivers. We also encourage the development of workplace legislation and caregiver friendly workplaces for the majority of caregivers who remain in the labour market.

Literature on lifelong learning indicates that major life transitions lead to significant learning. However, compared to learning in paid jobs, learning in and through household work has received little attention, given the unpaid nature and the private sphere where the learning occurs. The current study examined the changes and the learning involved in three aspects of household work: food work, childcare/parenting, and emotion work among recent Chinese immigrants in Canada. This study draws on data from a Canadian Survey on Work and Lifelong Learning (WALL), 20 individual interviews, a focus group, and a discussion group with new Chinese professional immigrants in the Greater Toronto Area. The results indicate that food work and childcare increased dramatically after immigration due to a sudden decline of economic resources and the lack of social support network for childcare. Emotion work intensified due to the challenges in paid jobs and the absence of extended families in the new homeland. To adapt to the changes in their social and economic situations, and to integrate into the Canadian society, Chinese immigrants learned new beliefs and practices about food and childrearing, developed new knowledge and skills in cooking and grocery shopping, in childcare and disciplining, in solving conflicts with children and spouses, and in transnational kin maintenance. In addition, the Chinese immigrants also developed new views about family, paid and unpaid work, meaning of life, and new gender and ethnic identities. However, these dramatic changes did not shatter the gendered division of household work. Both the qualitative and the quantitative data suggest that women not only do more but also different types of household tasks. As a result, it is not surprising that both the content and the ways of learning associated with household work varied by gender, class, and ethnicity. By exploring learning involved in the four dimensions of household work: physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual, this dissertation demonstrates that learning is both lifelong and lifewide. By making household work visible, this research helps make visible the value of the unpaid work and the learning involved in it.

The Labour Supply of Unpaid Caregivers in Canada, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Meredith Lenore Lilly, Department of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, 2008. As medical care increasingly shifts from the hospital to the home, responsibility for care has also shifted from the state and paid care, to the family and unpaid care. Unpaid caregivers are family members and friends who provide homecare services to recipients in their place of residence without financial compensation, as a result of their close personal relationships. This research tests the multiple hypotheses that unpaid caregiving has an impact on (1) the probability of labour force participation (LFP); (2) hours of labour force work; and (3) earnings by caregivers in Canada. We analyzed the 1996 and 2002 General Social Surveys, applying multivariate probit, logistic, and OLS regression analyses to four equations: 1) the probability of labour force participation; 2) the hourly wage; 3) weekly hours of labour market work; and 4) the probability of being an unpaid caregiver. Results indicate that unpaid caregiving was negatively associated with labour force participation; however, the impact on hours of labour market work and wages was uncertain. Women and men caregivers were impacted differently: only caregiving men in 1996 had significantly lower wages than non-caregivers, and only women in 1996 worked significantly fewer hours in the labour market. When caregiving was defined broadly, only men in 1996 were significantly less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. Yet when we controlled for caregiving intensity in 2002, both male and female primary caregivers were much less likely to be in the labour force than non-caregivers, while secondary caregivers were no less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. We conclude that when caregiving responsibilities are relatively small, individuals seem able to balance both caregiving with employment. Yet when caregiving commitments become heavy, it becomes increasingly difficult to balance employment with caregiving. We make a number of policy recommendations ranging from improving caregiver access to financial supports, formal care and respite services, particularly for primary caregivers. We also encourage the development of workplace legislation and caregiver friendly workplaces for the majority of caregivers who remain in the labour market.

Literature on lifelong learning indicates that major life transitions lead to significant learning. However, compared to learning in paid jobs, learning in and through household work has received little attention, given the unpaid nature and the private sphere where the learning occurs. The current study examined the changes and the learning involved in three aspects of household work: food work, childcare/parenting, and emotion work among recent Chinese immigrants in Canada. This study draws on data from a Canadian Survey on Work and Lifelong Learning (WALL), 20 individual interviews, a focus group, and a discussion group with new Chinese professional immigrants in the Greater Toronto Area. The results indicate that food work and childcare increased dramatically after immigration due to a sudden decline of economic resources and the lack of social support network for childcare. Emotion work intensified due to the challenges in paid jobs and the absence of extended families in the new homeland. To adapt to the changes in their social and economic situations, and to integrate into the Canadian society, Chinese immigrants learned new beliefs and practices about food and childrearing, developed new knowledge and skills in cooking and grocery shopping, in childcare and disciplining, in solving conflicts with children and spouses, and in transnational kin maintenance. In addition, the Chinese immigrants also developed new views about family, paid and unpaid work, meaning of life, and new gender and ethnic identities. However, these dramatic changes did not shatter the gendered division of household work. Both the qualitative and the quantitative data suggest that women not only do more but also different types of household tasks. As a result, it is not surprising that both the content and the ways of learning associated with household work varied by gender, class, and ethnicity. By exploring learning involved in the four dimensions of household work: physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual, this dissertation demonstrates that learning is both lifelong and lifewide. By making household work visible, this research helps make visible the value of the unpaid work and the learning involved in it.

Inspiré par la réflexion quant aux nouvelles formes d’organisation du travail de la nouvelle économie, ce mémoire s’intéresse à la question des heures supplémentaires non formellement rémunérées chez une frange de travailleurs hautement qualifiés, les concepteurs de jeux vidéo. Très innovantes pour les employeurs, ces formes d’organisation, en particulier l’organisation par projets, ne sont pas sans poser des problèmes aux travailleurs. À l’instar des travailleurs du savoir qui sont souvent prêts à investir de longues heures au travail, les concepteurs de jeux vidéo travaillent fréquemment en heures supplémentaires. Or ces heures supplémentaires sont non seulement non rémunérées, mais elles sont aussi longues et fréquentes. Comment en vient-on à faire accepter aux concepteurs cette situation, sans toutefois exiger d’eux qu’ils travaillent en heures supplémentaires? Pour explorer cette question, les discours de 53 concepteurs de jeux vidéo montréalais ont été analysés. Les résultats de cette recherche dévoilent une explication basée sur un système informel de récompenses et de châtiments qui induit chez la majorité des concepteurs de jeux interrogés une propension à travailler en heures supplémentaires non rémunérées. / Inspired by the reflection made on the new forms of work organization system brought by the new economy, this M. Sc. Thesis is interested in unlimited overtime informally compensated for, among a highly skilled group of workers: video game developers. Innovative from employer’s standpoint, these types of organization system, in particular the project-based system does generate problems for the workers. Like the knowledge workers who are willing to invest long hours of work, the video game developers frequently work overtime. Not only is this overtime unpaid, but also it is long and frequent. How does management come to make the developers consent to such a demand, without requiring them to work overtime? To explore this question, we analyzed the interviews done with 53 designers from the Montreal’s video game industry. Indeed, interviews revealed that a majority of game developers make unlimited unpaid overtime on a regular basis. The results of this research offer an explanation based on an informal system of rewards and punishments.

This thesis explores the relationship between the needs people experience in later life and the types of care they receive. The thesis provides evidence on the role of different types of care in supporting the needs of people aged 60+ in England using the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA). The research presented adopts a number of new approaches to capturing the multi-dimensional nature of dependency by utilising a range of binary indicators of difficulty performing 10 actions related to upper and lower body mobility, 6 activities of daily living (ADL) and 7 instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). The thesis provides a detailed analysis of the prevalence of these items when considered independently and collectively in combination. A central aim of the research is to develop a more nuanced understanding of dependency to allow for the dimensionality of the needs experienced by older people living in their own homes to be considered. The thesis utilizes a number of different approaches, including simple binary and count-based indicators of need and more complex measures reflecting dependency across different domains of need. These approaches allow a more dynamic picture of dependency in later life to be considered. Using these measures, the research explores the role of different types of care in meeting different types of need. Of these, a unique application of an existing assessment tool is presented, the Indicator of Relative Need (IoRN), which is used as a framework to derive an equivalent measure – the Array of Need (AoN). Given the aim of the study is to investigate the multi-dimensional nature of dependency, various data reduction approaches are used including principal components analysis. Finally, research from similar studies is acknowledged and work from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) study is reproduced using ELSA. The thesis suggests that when considering the dependency needs experienced by older people living in the community, it is important to be aware that this group includes both less and more dependent older people. As such, developing a better understanding of the dynamic relationship between dependency and the receipt of informal and formal care may require more suitable measurements of dependency.

The economic boom that we have been receiving is based on extraordinary macroeconomic figures, all economicactors are involved, the most influential being the level of involvement of the human factor that boosts productivity and increases returns profits to companies. The labor market is really dynamic and form part of this expansionary cycle gear, homogeneously transforming the economy and labor; however, the view of human capital in its environment the use of time, be it economically: leisure, is just one aspect emphasized in labor trials because modeling studies focus on the value of the numbers of companies, market measurements, compared asymmetries between firms, census, etc., but very little importance on the labor supply of families and the reasons that drive people to workon the dynamics of the different modalities used in employment pays off.This time, wich of the part time work, we could find the factors that influence families to join the labor market in part-time days. Thus, the purpose of the study lies in the eye of leisure and its relation to the initiative of working part- time as a single share of the person providing their workforce in the labor market. To have the theoretical basis of this dynamic resort to the theory of labor supply, which imposes the perspective of the study of the family and its members, analyzing the role that the individual and needs to face the labor market, if so, determining how to work part time. The significant element is the labor supply behavior, which is preceded by the decisions of the person, which reveals the actions of the economic function of the choice of the individual consumer and therefore its participation in thelabor market. / Es bachiller en Economía por la Universidad NacionalFederico Villarreal, y diplomado en Gestión de Recursos Humanos por la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP). De igual modo, es magíster en Rela- ciones Laborales por la PUCP. Se ha desempeñado como jefe de práctica en el Departamento Académico de Ciencias Administrativas de la PUCP. En la actualidad, trabaja en la Dirección de Recursos Humanosde la PUCP. / O boom econômico alcançado está baseado em números macroeconômicos extraordinários; todos os agentes econó-micos estão envolvidos, o mais influente é o nível de envolvimento do fator humano, o que aumenta a produtividade e aumenta os lucros das empresas. O mercado de trabalho é muito dinâmico e faz parte deste ciclo econômico expansivo que transforma homogeneamente a economia e a força de trabalho. No entanto, o capital humano e o uso do tempo de lazer é um aspecto pouco enfatizado no campo trabalhista. Isso ocorre porque a modelagem de estudos incide sobre o valor dos números nas empresas, mensuração do mercado, comparações entre as empresas, censos, etc.; entretanto, não é rentável a importância das famílias na oferta de trabalho nem as razões que levam as pessoas a trabalhar com a dinâmica utilizada em diferentes tipos de trabalhos.Desta vez, através do modo de part-time, nós poderíamos encontrar os fatores que influenciam as famílias para integra- se ao mercado de trabalho a tempo parcial. O objetivo do estudo encontra-se no lazer e sua relação com a iniciativa de trabalhar a tempo parcial como uma participação individual da pessoa no mercado de trabalho. Para ter a base teórica desta dinâmica, usamos a teoria da oferta de trabalho, o que impõe a perspectiva do estudo da família e seus membros. A partir daí, deve-se analisar o papel do indivíduo e as necessidades que o levam a enfrentar o mercado de trabalho, neste caso, o trabalho a tempo parcial. Note-se que o elemento significativo na oferta de trabalho é a conduta que é precedida pelas decisões do indivíduo. Isso revela o papel econômico sobre as escolhas do consumidor e, portanto, suaparticipação no mercado de trabalho.

En raison de la nature des biens et services distribués à caractère social et collectif et des missions sociales rendues, le secteur public est davantage susceptible d’attirer des travailleurs développant une motivation pro sociale que le secteur privé. Notre thèse élabore des tests empiriques afin de révéler la présence de cette forme de motivation chez les agents du secteur public. Notre premier chapitre cherche à évaluer les différences de satisfaction dans l’emploi au regard de diverses caractéristiques le définissant afin de mettre au jour des préférences différentes entre les salariés des secteurs public et privé, nous renseignant ainsi sur leur source de motivation respective. Nous trouvons que les employés du secteur public font montre d’une motivation pro sociale supérieure aux salariés du privé en étant prêts à travailler de plus longues heures tout en acceptant des salaires plus faibles que les salariés du privé. Dans les deux chapitres suivants, nous testons l’existence d’un comportement de don du travail supérieur de la part des agents du secteur public à l’aide de deux mesures de sur-effort dans l’emploi : la probabilité de faire des heures supplémentaires non payées et le phénomène du présentéisme au travail. Les résultats montrent que la présence d’une motivation pro sociale des agents du secteur public ne les conduit pas à fournir un don d’effort supérieur aux salariés du privé. Toutefois, dès lors que l’on cherche à modifier les méthodes d’incitation et d’organisation du travail ou encore la source de leur motivation spécifique, les agents du secteur public réduisent ce comportement d’effort supplémentaire gratuit. / Because of the nature of the public goods provided and the social services performed, the public sector is more likely to attract workers with a higher prosocial motivation than the private sector. Our thesis develops empirical tests to reveal the presence of this form of motivation among public sector agents. Our first chapter seeks to evaluate the differences in job satisfaction, defined with respect to various characteristics, in order to identify different preferences between employees in the public and private sectors, thus providing information on their respective sources of motivation. We find that public sector employees show greater prosocial motivation than private sector employees, the former being willing to work longer hours and accepting lower wages than the latter. In the two following chapters, we test whether public sector employees put more effort in the workplace, all other things being equal, using two measures of overeffort: the probability of working unpaid overtime and the phenomenon of presenteeism at work. The results of these studies highlight the presence of a pro-social motivation of public sector employees which however does not lead them to provide an effort greater than that provided by private sector employees. We find that the incentive to effort takes different forms according to the specific managerial and organizational characteristics of the work, and is compatible with motivations of different nature. Finally, we show that if such specific motivation did not exist, the provision of effort of public employees would be less frequent.