A leishmaniose é um grupo de doenças causadas por parasitos do gênero Leishmania com três manifestações clínicas principais: cutânea, mucocutânea e visceral. No Brasil, a leishmaniose é um importante problema de saúde pública pela alta incidência. O ciclo de vida da Leishmania envolve dois estágios principais de desenvolvimento, o promastigota que está presente no vetor, e o amastigota que é intracelular obrigatório do hospedeiro vertebrado. Este protozoário apresenta um alto grau de promiscuidade em quanto ao tipo de célula hospedeira, já que consegue infectar várias células do sistema imune como neutrófilos, macrófagos e células dendríticas, e também células não fagocíticas profissionais. Além disso, Leishmania pode infectar fibras musculares, como tem sido reportado em trabalhos prévios por meio de analises histológicas. Porém, as características da infecção por Leishmania no músculo têm sido pouco estudadas, o que permitiria estabelecer a importância destas células durante a infecção. O objetivo deste projeto foi avaliar as características biológicas da infecção por promastigotas de L. (L.) amazonensis em células musculares esqueléticas (SkMCs). Para atingir isso, camundongos C57BL/6 e BALB/c foram infectados nas patas traseiras, o musculo Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) foi extraído e processado para coloração com hematoxilina/eosina ou imunohistoquímica. Culturas de SkMCs como mioblastos e miotubos foram infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h. As infecções foram caracterizadas por meio de imunofluorescência indireta e microscopia confocal. As culturas de SkMCs foram caracterizadas e padronizadas por médio das proteínas Caveolina-1 e Caveolina-3, também foi medido o Ph dos vacúolos parasitóforos de mioblastos e miotubos com laranja de acridina (AO). Adicionalmente, culturas de SkMCs como miotubos foram pré-tratadas com Streptolisina O (SLO) e/ou infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h, com o intuito de esclarecer como ocorre a entrada do parasito nas células musculares. Neste caso foi avaliada a produção de IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 e NO. Além disso, foi quantificado o mRNA de IL1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH e Lyst. A infecção de células mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis consegue infectar as fibras musculares in vivo, e também as células musculares esqueléticas (mioblastos e miotubos) in vitro. Além disso, o teste de viabilidade mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis permanece viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo após 72h de infecção. Finalmente, foi observado que o tratamento com SLO pode favorecer a entrada do parasito nas SkMCs, como foi evidenciado pelas diferencias no nível de mRNA entre as células infectadas ou infectadas e tratadas com SLO. Os dados em conjunto sugerem que L. (L.) amazonensis tem a capacidade de infectar as células musculares esqueléticas, dado que consegue entrar nestas células, e permanecer viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo. A presença do parasito dentro das células induz uma resposta imune no músculo que pode estar relacionada com os processos de reparo do tecido. A entrada de L. (L.) amazonensis nas células musculares esqueléticas durante a infecção no hospedeiro mamífero é importante devido a sua capacidade de manter o parasito viável. / Leishmaniasis is a group of diseases caused by parasites from genus Leishmania. The main clinical manifestations are cutaneous, mucocutaneus and visceral leishmaniasis. In Brazil, leishmaniasis is an important public health problem because of the high incidence. The Leishmania life cycle has two principal developing stages: promastigote inside the insect vector, and amastigote, an obligate intracellular parasite of vertebrate-host cells. This protozoan is highly promiscuous in host cell type, because it infects different immune cells like neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells, and also non-professional phagocytes. Besides, Leishmania might infect muscle fibers, as previous studies suggested from histological analysis. However, the characteristics of Leishmania infection in muscle cells is poorly understood, which is important to understand the role of these cells during the infection. The aim of this study was to characterize the infection process by promastigotes of <i.>L. (L.) amazonensis in skeletal muscle cells (SkMCs). C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were infected in hind footpads, the Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) muscle was extracted and process to dyed with hematoxylin/eosin or immunohistochemistry. SkMCs as myoblasts and myotubes were infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis during 72h. The infections were characterized using indirect immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. SkMCs culture were characterized and standardized through Caveolin-1 and Caveolin-3 proteins, and the pH of parasitophorous vacuoles both in myoblasts and myotubes was measured through acridine orange staining. In order to assess how the parasite invades the cells, myotubes were pretreated with SLO and/or infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis for 72h. The production of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 and NO was quantified, and the mRNA levels of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH and Lyst. The cell infection showed that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect muscle fibers in vivo, and skeletal muscle cells in vitro. Moreover, viability test showed the parasite remains viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole until 72h of infection. Finally, the SLO treatment can favor parasite entrance in SkMCs, as evidenced by differences in mRNA levels between infected cells or infected and treated with SLO. All data suggest that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect skeletal muscle cells, by entering into the cells, and remaining viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole. The parasite presence inside the muscle cells triggers an immune response that may be related with muscle repair processes. The entrance of L. (L.) amazonensis into SkMCs during infection in a mammal host is important because it contribute with parasite proliferation.

La voie TORC1 joue un rôle majeur dans le contrôle de la croissance cellulaire et de la réponse à divers stress. Le dérèglement de cette voie est constaté dans de nombreux cancers et autres maladies. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai montré que le complexe SEA émerge comme un régulateur central des différentes activités de TORC1. Durant la carence azotée, les délétions des gènes du complexe SEA dans l’organisme modèle S.cerevisiae mènent à la délocalisation de la kinase Tor1 vers le cytoplasme, à des défauts d’autophagie et à la fragmentation de la vacuole. L’inactivation de TORC1 par le traitement avec la rapamycine ou pendant la carence azotée change le niveau d’expression des membres du complexe SEA. De plus, le complexe SEA interagit avec la mitochondrie, joue un rôle dans la réponse au stress oxydatif et peut servir de lien moléculaire entre les fonctions mitochondriales et la voie TORC1. Enfin, j’ai pu observer que le complexe SEA est impliqué dans les mécanismes de résistance à une drogue souvent utilisée en chimiothérapie, la doxorubicine. Je présente dans mes travaux la première carte d’interconnectivité des protéines composant le complexe SEA. Nos données suggèrent que le complexe SEA émerge comme une plateforme qui peut coordonner les activités structurales et enzymatiques nécessaires pour le fonctionnement efficace de la voie de signalisation TORC1. / The TORC1 pathway plays a major role in controlling cell growth and response to various stresses. Deregulation of this pathway is found in many cancers and other diseases. In my thesis, I have shown that the SEA complex emerges as a central regulator of the various activities of TORC1. During the nitrogen deficiency, deletions of SEA complex genes in the model organism S.cerevisiae lead to the relocation of Tor1 kinase to the cytoplasm, to defects in autophagy and the fragmentation of the vacuole. Inactivation of TORC1 by treatment with rapamycin or nitrogen starvation changes the level of expression of SEA complex members. Moreover, the SEA complex interacts with mitochondrion, plays a role in oxidative stress response and can serve as a molecular link between mitochondrial functions and TORC1 pathway. Finally, I observed that the SEA complex is involved in the mechanisms of resistance to a drug often used in chemotherapy, the doxorubicin. I present in my work the first interconnectivity map protein of the SEA complex component. Our data suggest that the SEA complex emerges as a platform that can coordinate structural and enzymatic activities necessary for the efficient function of the TORC1 signalling pathway.

A leishmaniose é um grupo de doenças causadas por parasitos do gênero Leishmania com três manifestações clínicas principais: cutânea, mucocutânea e visceral. No Brasil, a leishmaniose é um importante problema de saúde pública pela alta incidência. O ciclo de vida da Leishmania envolve dois estágios principais de desenvolvimento, o promastigota que está presente no vetor, e o amastigota que é intracelular obrigatório do hospedeiro vertebrado. Este protozoário apresenta um alto grau de promiscuidade em quanto ao tipo de célula hospedeira, já que consegue infectar várias células do sistema imune como neutrófilos, macrófagos e células dendríticas, e também células não fagocíticas profissionais. Além disso, Leishmania pode infectar fibras musculares, como tem sido reportado em trabalhos prévios por meio de analises histológicas. Porém, as características da infecção por Leishmania no músculo têm sido pouco estudadas, o que permitiria estabelecer a importância destas células durante a infecção. O objetivo deste projeto foi avaliar as características biológicas da infecção por promastigotas de L. (L.) amazonensis em células musculares esqueléticas (SkMCs). Para atingir isso, camundongos C57BL/6 e BALB/c foram infectados nas patas traseiras, o musculo Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) foi extraído e processado para coloração com hematoxilina/eosina ou imunohistoquímica. Culturas de SkMCs como mioblastos e miotubos foram infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h. As infecções foram caracterizadas por meio de imunofluorescência indireta e microscopia confocal. As culturas de SkMCs foram caracterizadas e padronizadas por médio das proteínas Caveolina-1 e Caveolina-3, também foi medido o Ph dos vacúolos parasitóforos de mioblastos e miotubos com laranja de acridina (AO). Adicionalmente, culturas de SkMCs como miotubos foram pré-tratadas com Streptolisina O (SLO) e/ou infectadas com promastigotas metacíclicos de L. (L.) amazonensis por 72h, com o intuito de esclarecer como ocorre a entrada do parasito nas células musculares. Neste caso foi avaliada a produção de IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 e NO. Além disso, foi quantificado o mRNA de IL1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH e Lyst. A infecção de células mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis consegue infectar as fibras musculares in vivo, e também as células musculares esqueléticas (mioblastos e miotubos) in vitro. Além disso, o teste de viabilidade mostrou que L. (L.) amazonensis permanece viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo após 72h de infecção. Finalmente, foi observado que o tratamento com SLO pode favorecer a entrada do parasito nas SkMCs, como foi evidenciado pelas diferencias no nível de mRNA entre as células infectadas ou infectadas e tratadas com SLO. Os dados em conjunto sugerem que L. (L.) amazonensis tem a capacidade de infectar as células musculares esqueléticas, dado que consegue entrar nestas células, e permanecer viável dentro do vacúolo parasitóforo. A presença do parasito dentro das células induz uma resposta imune no músculo que pode estar relacionada com os processos de reparo do tecido. A entrada de L. (L.) amazonensis nas células musculares esqueléticas durante a infecção no hospedeiro mamífero é importante devido a sua capacidade de manter o parasito viável. / Leishmaniasis is a group of diseases caused by parasites from genus Leishmania. The main clinical manifestations are cutaneous, mucocutaneus and visceral leishmaniasis. In Brazil, leishmaniasis is an important public health problem because of the high incidence. The Leishmania life cycle has two principal developing stages: promastigote inside the insect vector, and amastigote, an obligate intracellular parasite of vertebrate-host cells. This protozoan is highly promiscuous in host cell type, because it infects different immune cells like neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells, and also non-professional phagocytes. Besides, Leishmania might infect muscle fibers, as previous studies suggested from histological analysis. However, the characteristics of Leishmania infection in muscle cells is poorly understood, which is important to understand the role of these cells during the infection. The aim of this study was to characterize the infection process by promastigotes of <i.>L. (L.) amazonensis in skeletal muscle cells (SkMCs). C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were infected in hind footpads, the Flexor Digitorum Brevis (FDB) muscle was extracted and process to dyed with hematoxylin/eosin or immunohistochemistry. SkMCs as myoblasts and myotubes were infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis during 72h. The infections were characterized using indirect immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. SkMCs culture were characterized and standardized through Caveolin-1 and Caveolin-3 proteins, and the pH of parasitophorous vacuoles both in myoblasts and myotubes was measured through acridine orange staining. In order to assess how the parasite invades the cells, myotubes were pretreated with SLO and/or infected with metaciclic promastigotes of L. (L.) amazonensis for 72h. The production of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-10 and NO was quantified, and the mRNA levels of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, iNOS, Ama2, UbH and Lyst. The cell infection showed that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect muscle fibers in vivo, and skeletal muscle cells in vitro. Moreover, viability test showed the parasite remains viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole until 72h of infection. Finally, the SLO treatment can favor parasite entrance in SkMCs, as evidenced by differences in mRNA levels between infected cells or infected and treated with SLO. All data suggest that L. (L.) amazonensis can infect skeletal muscle cells, by entering into the cells, and remaining viable inside the parasitophorous vacuole. The parasite presence inside the muscle cells triggers an immune response that may be related with muscle repair processes. The entrance of L. (L.) amazonensis into SkMCs during infection in a mammal host is important because it contribute with parasite proliferation.

Dans la cellule hôte, Toxoplasma gondii se développe dans une vacuole parasitophore (VP) caractérisée par un réseau de nanotubes membranaires (RNM) dont la composition, le mécanisme de formation et la fonction sont obscures. Quelques protéines GRA, dont GRA2 et GRA6, sont sécrétées dans la VP à partir des granules denses puis ciblées au RNM. Cette localisation s'accorde avec l'hélice alpha-hydrophobe de GRA6 et les hélices alpha-amphipathiques de GRA2. Avant et après sécrétion dans la VP, les protéines GRA sont partiellement solubles. Le phénotype de parasites délétés de leur(s) gène(s) GRA2 et/ou GRA6 révèle que ces 2 protéines sont indispensables à la formation du RNM. J'ai montré 1) qu'avant leur insertion dans les membranes de la VP, la solubilité des protéines GRA est préservée grâce à des interactions hydrophobes avec peut être, des micelles de l'espace vacuolaire ; 2) que GRA12, une nouvelle protéine du RNM, n'interagit pas avec GRA2 dans ces membranes. 3) que l'adressage spécifique de GRA6 au RNM est déterminé par son domaine N-terminal hydrophile. 4) J'ai montré que GRA2 recombinante a une affinité pour le phosphatidyl inositol (4, 5) diphosphate avec lequel elle interagit via ses hélices alpha-amphipathiques. GRA2 déforme des liposomes de courbure membranaire importante pour générer de courts tubules membranaires. La tubulation est accentuée par GRA6 qui s'associe aux liposomes, quelque soit leur diamètre. Ces résultats valident le rôle direct de GRA2 et GRA6 dans la formation du RNM et laissent envisager un modèle de sa formation, dans lequel GRA6 favoriserait l'assemblage de vésicules lipidiques que GRA2 fusionnerait en tubules membranaires.

Submitted by Ana Maria Fiscina Sampaio (fiscina@bahia.fiocruz.br) on 2014-10-29T13:31:11Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Beatriz Rocha Simone Dias Vacúolos....pdf: 43303992 bytes, checksum: 310fce5b6b7557207067a51be3ca3c64 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-29T13:31:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Beatriz Rocha Simone Dias Vacúolos....pdf: 43303992 bytes, checksum: 310fce5b6b7557207067a51be3ca3c64 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Centro de Pesquisa Gonçalo Moniz. Salvador, BA, Brasil / A Leishmania é um parasito intracelular obrigatório que vive e se multiplic adentro dos vacúolos parasitóforos em macrófagos no hospedeiro vertebrado. Apesar dos vacúolos induzidos por diferentes espécies de Leishmania apresentarem semelhanças bioquímicas, esses compartimentos apresentam diferenças significativas nos seus tamanhos. Os vacúolos parasitóforos induzidos por Leishmania mexicana e Leishmania amazonensis apresentam grandes dimensões e contêm uma grande quantidade de amastigotas, enquanto que os induzidos por Leishmania major e Leishmania donovani são pequenos e com pouco espaço ao redor das amastigotas. Estudos recentes demonstraram que compartimentos induzidos por microrganismos intracelulares são capazes de interagir com a via autofágica e esta pode controlar ou promover o estabelecimento da infecção a depender da natureza do microrganismo. Até o momento, poucos estudos foram realizados para avaliar o papel da autofagia na biogênese e maturação dos vacúolos parasitóforos induzidos por Leishmania. Recentemente, foi demonstrado que em macrófagos de camundongos BALB/c, a indução de autofagia provoca um aumento na carga parasitária de L. amazonensis, no entanto, não é capaz de aumentar a carga parasitária de L. major. Além disso, estudos indicam que vacúolos parasitóforos de L. mexicana adquirem macromoléculas do citoplasma da célula hospedeira por meio de microautofagia. Uma vez que L. amazonensis integra o mesmo complexo que L. mexicana, nossa hipótese é que vacúolos parasitóforos induzidos por L. amazonensis interagem com a via autofágica.Assim, o presente estudo tem como bjetivo verificar e comparar a participação da autofagia na infecção por L. amazonensis ou L. major em macrófagos murinos. Para este fim, avaliamos quanto a características autofágicas, os vacúolos parasitóforos induzidos por L. amazonensis ou L. major em macrófagos de camundongo CBA e analisamos a influência da superexpressão de LC3 sobre a sobrevivência de L. amazonensis ou L. major em macrófagos infectados. Inicialmente, macrófagos de camundongos CBA foram infectados com L. amazonensis ou L. major e incubados com ysoTracker, marcador de compartimentos lisossomais, ou DQ-BSA, marcador de compartimentos degradativos. Além disso, foi avaliada a presença de LAMP, proteína lisossomal, e LC3, proteína específica de autofagossomo, na membrana destes vacúolos. Em seguida, a co- localização dos parasitos com os vacúolos parasitóforos contendo estes marcadores foi quantificada. Nossos resultados demostraram um maior percentual de co-localização tanto do LysoTracker como doDQ-BSAcom parasitos em vacúolos no interior de macrófagos infectados com L. major em comparação com aqueles infectados com L. amazonensis. No entanto, não houve diferença no percentual de co-localização de LAMP com L. major ou L. amazonensis e foi observado um maior percentual de co-localização do LC3 com parasitos em macrófagos infectados com L. amazonensis em comparação com aqueles infectados com L. major. Posteriormente, avaliamos o efeito da superexpressão da LC3 na infecção por L. amazonensis ou L. major. Células de linhagem macrofágica RAW foram transfectadas com o plasmídeo contendo a sequência codificante para a LC3 e infectadas com L. amazonensis ou L. major. Nós observamos uma reduçãono percentual de infecção por L. amazonensis e L. major nas células RAW- pmRFP-LC3 em comparação às controle. Essa diminuição na infecção se deu por inibição da fagocitose de L. amazonensis e L. major pois os parasitos continuam a interagir com a membrana das células RAW-pmRFP-LC3, mas não são internalizadas. Em conjunto, estes dados demonstram que os vacúolos parasitóforos de L. amazonensis e L. major interagem com compartimentos da via autofágica de forma distinta e que a superexpressão de LC3 reduz a fagocitose de L. amazonensis e L. major por células RAW, o que resulta na redução da infecção / Leishmania is an intracellular parasite that lives and multiplies within parasitophorous vacuoles in macrophages in the vertebrate host. Despite the fact that vacuoles induced by different species of Leishmania present biochemical similarities, these compartments have significant differences in their sizes and composition. The parasitophorous vacuoles induced by Leishmania mexicana and Leishmania amazonensis are large and contain a large number of amastigotes, while vacuoles induced by Leishmania major and Leishmania donovani are small and tight. Recent studies have demonstrated that depending on the type of intracellular microorganism, the induced compartments can interact with the autophagic pathway and control or promote the establishment of infection. To date, few studies have been conducted to evaluate the role autophagic process plays in the biogenesis and maturation of parasitophorous vacuoles induced by Leishmania. Recently, it has been demonstrated that in macrophages of BALB/c mice, the induction of autophagic causes an increase in parasitic load of L. amazonensis, but not L. major. Furthermore, other studies indicate that L. mexicana-induced parasitophorous vacuoles acquire macromolecules from the cytoplasm of the host cell through microautophagy. Once L. amazonensis belongs to the same complex that L. mexicana, our hypothesis is that L. amazonensis-induced parasitophorous vacuoles interact with the autophagic pathway. Thus, the present study aims to evaluate and compare the role autophagic process plays in Leishmania infection. We evaluated L. amazonensis- or L. major-induced parasitophorous vacuoles regarding their autophagic characteristics and we analyzed the influence of the overexpression of LC3 on the survival of parasites in infected macrophages. Initially, macrophages of CBA mice were infected with L. amazonensis or L. major and incubated with a marker of lysosomal compartments, LysoTracker, or a marker of degrading compartments, DQ-BSA. In addition, we evaluated the presence of the lysosomal membrane protein, LAMP-1, and a protein specific of autophagossomes, LC3 in the membrane of these vacuoles. Then, the colocalization of parasites with the marker labeled-compartments was quantified. Our results demonstrated a higher percentage of colocalization of both LysoTracker and DQ-BSA with parasites in vacuoles within macrophages infected with L. major in comparison with those infected with L. amazonensis. However, there was no difference in the percentage of colocalization of LAMP with L. major or L. amazonensis. We also observed a higher percentage of LC3-co-localizing with parasites in macrophages infected with L. amazonensis in comparison with those infected with L. major. Subsequently, we evaluated the effect of overexpression of LC3 in macrophages infected with L. amazonensis or L. major. RAW cells were transfected with the plasmid containing the coding sequence for the LC3 (RAW-pmRFP-LC3) and then were infected with L. amazonensis or L. major stationary phase promastigotas. A reduction was observed in the percentage of infected RAW-pmRFP-LC3 cells with L. amazonensis and L. major compared to control cells. This decrease in the percentage of infected cells is due to the inhibition of phagocytic ability of RAW-pmRFP-LC3 cells, since the parasites continue to interact with cell membrane, but is not internalized. Together, these findings show that L. amazonensis- and L. major-induced parasitophorous vacuoles interact differently with compartments of the autophagic pathway and that the overexpression of LC3 reduces phagocytosis of both L. amazonensis and L. major by RAW-pmRFP-LC3 cells resulting in the reduction of infection.

Les aquaporines sont des canaux hydriques qui contrôlent la perméabilité à l'eau des membranes cellulaires, au cours du développement ou en réponse à des stress. La dynamique de l'expression des aquaporines de plantes et leur rôle physiologique ont été examinés dans deux organes modèles, le pollen et la racine d'Arabidopsis. Le pollen mature contient une cellule végétative et deux cellules de sperme. Des analyses transcriptomiques ont récemment identifié AtTIP1;3 et AtTIP5;1 comme deux aquaporines spécifiques du pollen. Dans ce travail, des protéines reportrices fluorescentes ont permis d'établir que AtTIP1;3 et AtTIP5;1 s'expriment spécifiquement dans la membrane vacuolaire de, respectivement, la cellule végétative et les cellules de sperme. Ces études révèlent aussi la grande plasticité dynamique des vacuoles, de la maturation du pollen jusqu'à la fécondation. Des approches de génétique inverse suggèrent un rôle des deux aquaporines dans la reproduction de la plante. La seconde partie de ce travail concerne les effets concomitants des stress oxydants, inhibant la conductivité hydraulique des racines et provoquant une accumulation intracellulaire des aquaporines initialement sur les membranes plasmiques. Le dernier processus a été disséqué par des approches de biochimie, pharmacologie et microscopie. La co-expression avec des marqueurs des endomembranes a révélé que l'isoforme AtPIP2;1 subit une accumulation dans les endosomes tardifs en réponse à l'H2O2. Ce processus peut être bloqué par l'auxine synthétique 1-NAA, mais non par l'inhibiteur d'endocytose tyrphostine A23. La grande stabilité des aquaporines internalisées suggère que l'H2O2 déclenche un mécanisme de séquestration réversible de celles-ci. Au-delà de données originales sur la régulation cellulaire des aquaporines, ce travail apporte un éclairage nouveau sur la dynamique des membranes intracellulaires des plantes, au cours du développement ou en réponse à des stress / Aquaporins are membrane water channel proteins that mediate the fine-tuning of cell membrane water permeability during development or in response to environmental stresses. The dynamic expression of aquaporins in planta, as well as their role in plant water relations, were investigated in two representative model organs, the pollen and roots of Arabidopsis. Mature pollen consists of a vegetative cell and two sperm cells. Transcriptomics recently identified AtTIP1;3 and AtTIP5;1 as two pollen exclusive aquaporins. Here, we investigated their in vivo temporal and spatial expression pattern. Fluorescently-tagged chimeras revealed that AtTIP1;3 and AtTIP5;1 have a distinct and specific localisation in the vacuolar membrane of the vegetative and sperm cells, respectively. The two aquaporins also revealed the dynamic plasticity of vacuoles from pollen maturation to embryo fecundation. Loss of function approaches suggest an implication of both proteins in plant reproduction. The second part of this work focused on the oxidative stress-induced internalisation of root plasma membrane aquaporins and its concomitant drop in root hydraulic conductivity. The former process was described in great detail by combined biochemical, pharmacological and microscopic approaches. Co-expression analyses of the AtPIP2;1 isoform with endomembrane markers revealed that H2O2 triggers AtPIP2;1 accumulation in late endosomal compartments. This process could be antagonized by the auxin analog 1-NAA, but not by the endocytosis blocker tyrphostin A23. Life-time analyses established the high stability of the internalised protein suggesting that H2O2 triggers a mechanism for intracellular and reversible sequestration of plasma membrane aquaporins. Besides information on cell regulation of aquaporins, the overall work gives novel and complementary insights into the dynamic remodelling of plant internal membranes during development and stress responses.

Les lymphocytes T CD8 jouent un rôle central dans l'immunité protectrice contre les pathogènes intracellulaires tels que le parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). T. gondii réside à l'intérieur d'une cellule hôte et dans une vacuole parasitophore. L'interface entre l'hôte et le parasite comprend une membrane limitant la vacuole ainsi qu'un réseau intravacuolaire (IVN) composé de tubules membranaires fortement incurvés et dont la fonction reste incertaine. Beaucoup d'effecteurs parasitaires, incluant des sources potentielles d'antigènes pour les lymphocytes T CD8, sont sécrétés par T. gondii dans la vacuole et adressés à différents endroits dans la vacuole ou au-delà, dans la cellule hôte. A l'heure actuelle, les mécanismes contrôlant l'adressage des antigènes parasitaires dans la cellule hôte demeurent mal compris et nous ne savons pas comment le transport intracellulaire des protéines de T. gondii influence leur disponibilité par la voie de présentation CMH I et leur capacité à induire l'immunité T CD8. En utilisant une approche multidisciplinaire combinant la génétique inverse de T. gondii, la microscopie, la présentation antigénique in vitro et l'expérimentation animale, mes travaux de thèse ont montré que l'insertion d'un antigène immunodominant à la membrane limitante de la vacuole constitue une des clés de l'immunogénicité. J'ai également montré que l'association de cet antigène à l'IVN limite sa présentation par les molécules du CMH I et réduit les réponses T CD8 spécifiques de cet antigène chez la souris. L'IVN pourrait jouer un rôle immuno-modulateur dans lequel il limiterait l'accès de protéines parasitaires sécrétées au cytosol de la cellule hôte et à la voie CMH I. / CD8 T cells play a key role in protective immunity against intracellular pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) parasite. T. gondii resides inside host cell in parasitophorous vacuole. The host-T. gondii interface comprises a vacuole limiting membrane and a highly curved membraneous IntraVacuolar Network (IVN) of uncertain function. Many parasite effectors, including potential epitopes for CD8 T cells, are secreted by T. gondii to and across the boundary of their parasitophorous vacuole. Currently, the mechanisms controlling the targeting of parasite antigens to host cell are misunderstood et we don't kwnow how the intracellular transport of T. gondii proteins impacts on their access to MCH I pathway and their ability to induce CD8 T cell immunity. Using a multidisciplinary approach which combined reverse genetics in T. gondii, microscopy, antigen presentation measurements and in vivo experiments, I showed that insertion of a T. gondii dominant antigen at the vacuole limiting membrane is key for immunogenicity, yet that association of this antigen to high curvature IVN limits its presentation and curtails specific CD8 responses in mice. The IVN may play a role in immune modulation by limiting the access of parasite proteins to host cytosol and thus to MHC I pathway.

Raman microspectroscopy enables one to acquire spectra of Raman scattering with a spatial resolution in the order of a few μm3 and thus to study the natural composition of biological objects such as tissues, single cells and cellular organelles in a non-invasive way. In this work, we used Raman microspectroscopy to investigate vacuoles of the opportunistic human yeast pathogen Candida albicans. Large sets of Raman spectra of vacuoles were collected based on different cultivation protocols. The sets of the spectra were evaluated using the multivariate statistical method of singular value decomposition. Based on the spectral analysis, we characterized the chemical composition of the vacuoles. We found out that the vacuoles of cells cultured differently or in different media vary particularly in the concentration of polyphosphate, represented in the spectra by the peak near 1155 cm-1 . Interestingly, the wavenumber position of the polyphosphate peak may also be shifted by several cm-1 . We studied these shifts in vitro with sodium hexametaphosphate as a model of vacuolar polyphosphate. Based on these experiments, we suggest that the peak position is significantly influenced by the concentration of divalent cations.

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMGR, EC 1.1.1.34) catalyzes the reaction from hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA to mevalonate in the isoprenoid pathway. In solanaceous plants, one class of endproducts of the pathway are sesquiterpenoid phytoalexins, antibiotic compounds produced by plants in response to pathogens. We are interested in the role of the defense-inducible isoforms of HMGR in phytoalexin production and disease resistance. Transgenic tobacco, constitutively expressing the defense-inducible tomato hmgr isogene, hmg2, showed fewer and smaller lesions following tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) inoculation. There is little evidence of phytoalexins acting directly against viruses, but they may reduce the spread of viruses as part of the hypersensitive response resulting in death of the host cell. Transmission electron microscopy of leaf cells of the transgenic plants revealed a larger volume of cytosol and accumulation of electron-dense inclusion bodies within the vacuoles. No structures resembling crystalloid ER or karmellae, caused by overexpression of hmgr in mammalian or yeast cells, respectively, were observed. Similar inclusion bodies were found in the vacuoles of wild-type tobacco leaf cells adjacent to necrotic cells in a TMV lesion. Tobacco expressing a truncated (membrane domain) form of hmg2 did not show enhanced resistance to TMV or any ultrastructural changes, indicating the importance of catalytically active HMG2 in mediating these changes. Sesquiterpene cyclase (a key branch point enzyme controlling sesquiterpene phytoalexin biosynthesis) was not induced and the amount of capsidiol, the tobacco phytoalexin, was not elevated by expression of hmg2. After TMV-inoculation, HMGR activity and the amount of capsidiol were higher in the wild-type than in the transgenic plants. Consequently, the enhanced resistance to TMV was not due to constitutive capsidiol production. The transgenic plants may have been able to produce sesquiterpenoid phytoalexins faster due to constitutive hmg2- expression and restricted the spread of the virus earlier, so that only a few cells were sacrificed. The subcellular localization of the defense-specific HMG2 isoform was determined by tagging tomato hmg2 with a c-myc epitope, and constitutively expressing the construct in transgenic tobacco plants. In non-induced leaves, MYC-HMG2 was found localized in small clusters associated with the ER. In TMV-inoculated leaves MYC-HMG2 co-localized with sesquiterpene cyclase to the vacuolar inclusion bodies suggesting that they may contain a defense-induced, membrane-associated multienzyme complex dedicated to sesquiterpene production. Our results support the hypothesis of the multibranched plant isoprenoid pathway being partly regulated by pathway partitioning. / Ph. D.

The parasite Plasmodium falciparum causes the most virulent form of human malaria and is responsible for the vast majority of malaria-related deaths. During the asexual intraerythrocytic stage, the parasite must transport newly synthesized proteins and endocytosed cargo to a variety of organelles, many of which are formed de novo and have no human equivalent. This process in mammalian cells would utilize an endosomal protein trafficking system, but no endosomal structures or proteins have been described in the parasite. Prior work on the parasite genome indicated that several proteins, which could potentially coordinate an endosomal network, were encoded in the genome and expressed during the asexual parasite stages. In this study, we have localized and attempted to further characterize these proteins in the context of the endosomal system. Two well-conserved protein components of the late endosome, the retromer cargo-selective complex and Rab7, were found on a previously un-described inherited structure adjacent to the parasite Golgi apparatus and in close opposition to nascent rhoptries (specialized secretory organelles required for invasion). The retromer cargo-selective complex was also in close proximity to its putative cargo, a P. falciparum homolog of the sortilin family of protein sorting receptors, PfSortilin. Another protein, PfFCP, the sole FYVE domain-containing protein in the P. falciparum genome, was localized to the membrane of a specialized acidic organelle, known as the food vacuole, where the parasite catabolizes the majority of its host cell hemoglobin. We analyzed the effects of a PfFCP dominant negative mutant and found that it altered food vacuole morphology and trafficking. A previous report localized the early endosome phosphoinositide, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate, to the food vacuole membrane, and in conjunction with our studies on PfFCP, this has raised doubts about the food vacuole as a lysosome equivalent in the parasite. The combination of both early and late endosome protein homologs in the parasite, and their potential function, has led to a new model of protein trafficking within the parasite that includes the food vacuole as a terminal early endosome and the apical organelles as lysosome equivalents. / Ph. D.