M.A. (Afrikaans) / Language is the heartbeat of broadcasting, and is regarded primarily as a means of communication that is used for different purposes in different situations. The register of broadcasting language embodies and perpetuates standard language, and fits the specific situation or circumstance in terms of formal, informal and stylistically neutral language. It could be said that the various forms of Afrikaans cannot be regarded as right or wrong, but should be measured against the norms for the situation in which, and the purpose for which, it is used. All the varieties of Afrikaans are of equal value and each register has its rightful place, measured against the standards of functionality with regard to situation and purpose. The Komitee vir Taaladvies (KTA), as the official normative body for the Afrikaans of the SABC, does not act as a competitive linguistic standardiser, but is definitely in an authoritative position in the speech community when it comes to pronouncements on the standardisation of language. The KTA's approach to the usage corpus is that each item should provoke the least resistance from viewers and listeners. The KTA's objective is to promote communication by applying standardisation of language and using standard Afrikaans as the model. The KTA, the Language Bureau and the staff of the Language Bureau apply the generally recognised norms for standardising the formal broadcasting register of Afrikaans that promotes communication in Afrikaans. A lay phonetic system was developed for SAUKT and received favourably by the Language Bureau and the KTA. The system is easily understood since it is modelled on written Afrikaans.

Keyword searching and controlled vocabularies such as Library of Congress subject headings (LCSH) proved to work well together in automated technologies and the two systems have been considered complimentary. When the Internet burst onto the information landscape, users embraced the simplicity of keyword searching of this resource while researchers and scholars seemed unable to agree on how best to make use of controlled vocabularies in this huge database. This research looked at a controlled vocabulary, LCSH, in the context of keyword searching of a full text database. The Internet and probably its most used search engine, Google, seemed to have set a standard that users have embraced: a keyword-searchable single search box on an uncluttered web page. Libraries have even introduced federated single search boxes to their web pages, another testimony to the influence of Google. UNT's Thesis and Dissertation digital database was used to compile quantitative data with the results input into an EXCEL spreadsheet. Both Library of Congress subject headings (LCSH) and author-assigned keywords were analyzed within selected dissertations and both systems were compared. When the LCSH terms from the dissertations were quantified, the results showed that from a total of 788 words contained in the 207 LCSH terms assigned to 70 dissertations, 246 of 31% did not appear in the title or abstract while only 8, or about 1% from the total of 788, did not appear in the full text. When the author-assigned keywords were quantified, the results showed that from a total of 552 words from304 author-assigned keywords in 86 dissertations, 50 or 9% did not appear in the title or abstract while only one word from the total of 552 or .18% did not appear in the full text. Qualitatively, the LCSH terms showed a hierarchical construction that was clearly designed for a print card catalog, seemingly unnecessary in a random access digital environment. While author-assigned keywords were important words and phrases, these words and phrases often appeared in the title, metadata, and full text of the dissertation, making them seemingly unnecessary in a keyword search environment as they added no additional access points. Authors cited in this research have tended to agree that controlled vocabularies such as LCSH are complicated to develop and implement and expensive to maintain. Most researchers have also tended to agree that LCSH needs to be simplified for large, full text databases such as the Internet. Some of the researchers have also called for some form of automation that seamlessly links LCSH to subject terms in a keyword search. This research tends to confirm that LCSH could benefit from simplification as well as automation and offers some suggestions for improvements in both areas.

Le travail présenté dans cette thèse explore les méthodes pratiques utilisées pour faciliter l'entraînement et améliorer les performances des modèles de langues munis de très grands vocabulaires. La principale limite à l'utilisation des modèles de langue neuronaux est leur coût computationnel: il dépend de la taille du vocabulaire avec laquelle il grandit linéairement. La façon la plus aisée de réduire le temps de calcul de ces modèles reste de limiter la taille du vocabulaire, ce qui est loin d'être satisfaisant pour de nombreuses tâches. La plupart des méthodes existantes pour l'entraînement de ces modèles à grand vocabulaire évitent le calcul de la fonction de partition, qui est utilisée pour forcer la distribution de sortie du modèle à être normalisée en une distribution de probabilités. Ici, nous nous concentrons sur les méthodes à base d'échantillonnage, dont le sampling par importance et l'estimation contrastive bruitée. Ces méthodes permettent de calculer facilement une approximation de cette fonction de partition. L'examen des mécanismes de l'estimation contrastive bruitée nous permet de proposer des solutions qui vont considérablement faciliter l'entraînement, ce que nous montrons expérimentalement. Ensuite, nous utilisons la généralisation d'un ensemble d'objectifs basés sur l'échantillonnage comme divergences de Bregman pour expérimenter avec de nouvelles fonctions objectif. Enfin, nous exploitons les informations données par les unités sous-mots pour enrichir les représentations en sortie du modèle. Nous expérimentons avec différentes architectures, sur le Tchèque, et montrons que les représentations basées sur les caractères permettent l'amélioration des résultats, d'autant plus lorsque l'on réduit conjointement l'utilisation des représentations de mots. / This work investigates practical methods to ease training and improve performances of neural language models with large vocabularies. The main limitation of neural language models is their expensive computational cost: it depends on the size of the vocabulary, with which it grows linearly. Despite several training tricks, the most straightforward way to limit computation time is to limit the vocabulary size, which is not a satisfactory solution for numerous tasks. Most of the existing methods used to train large-vocabulary language models revolve around avoiding the computation of the partition function, ensuring that output scores are normalized into a probability distribution. Here, we focus on sampling-based approaches, including importance sampling and noise contrastive estimation. These methods allow an approximate computation of the partition function. After examining the mechanism of self-normalization in noise-contrastive estimation, we first propose to improve its efficiency with solutions that are adapted to the inner workings of the method and experimentally show that they considerably ease training. Our second contribution is to expand on a generalization of several sampling based objectives as Bregman divergences, in order to experiment with new objectives. We use Beta divergences to derive a set of objectives from which noise contrastive estimation is a particular case. Finally, we aim at improving performances on full vocabulary language models, by augmenting output words representation with subwords. We experiment on a Czech dataset and show that using character-based representations besides word embeddings for output representations gives better results. We also show that reducing the size of the output look-up table improves results even more.

No description available.

No description available.

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study comprises an investigation into the restandardisation of Afrikaans. Since the 1980s, there have been various calls from the Afrikaans speech community for the democratisation of Afrikaans by making it representative of the whole Afrikaans speech community. Despite these calls for the restandardisation of Afrikaans, a matter which has been brought to the fore in recent years, there are still no real theoretically-based and practical suggestions for such a project. The practical approach to the restandardisation of Afrikaans suggested in this study, with a specific focus on the restandardisation of the orthography of Afrikaans, informs the suggestion of a model by which such a planned restandardisation programme for Afrikaans could be carried out. This is done based on existing theories of standardisation and restandardisation, as well as a thorough investigation into the history of the standardisation of Afrikaans in order to determine the reasons underlying this need for its restandardisation. Firstly, relevant theories of standardisation are considered in order to determine which aspects of language standardisation give rise to restandardisation and play the most important role in it. The history of the standardisation of Afrikaans is also considered, in order to indicate the factors which gave rise to the calls for the restandardisation of Afrikaans. The world-wide phenomenon of destandardisation – an increasing trend by which the validity of standardised languages is called into question – is subsequently considered. Following this, restandardisation is considered in greater detail. Although the term is used widely, there are not yet thorough theoretical descriptions of the nature of the process itself. Therefore, this study provides a theoretical consideration of what restandardisation comprises. An investigation into various examples of attempts at the restandardisation of languages in South Africa, Africa, and the rest of the world serves as a backdrop against which the need for the restandardisation of Afrikaans is discussed. The standardisation of the orthography of Afrikaans, as outlined in the ten issues of the Afrikaanse woordelys en spelreëls (“Afrikaans word list and spelling rules”) which have been published to date, is the next research focus. The purpose of this critical evaluation of the primary source for orthographic standardisation of Afrikaans is to point out the weaknesses in the current standardisation process which necessitate a new approach to the standardisation of Afrikaans (and by extension, its restandardisation). Finally, a model is presented for the restandardisation of the orthography of Afrikaans, but also Afrikaans as a whole, based on various theoretical and practical considerations contained in the study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word die herstandaardisering van Afrikaans onder die loep geneem. Dit word gedoen teen die agtergrond van verskeie oproepe vanuit die Afrikaanse spraakgemeenskap sedert die 1980’s om Standaardafrikaans te demokratiseer deur dit verteenwoordigend te maak van die totale Afrikaanse spraakgemeenskap. Ten spyte van hierdie oproepe om die herstandaardisering van Afrikaans wat in die afgelope aantal jare op die spits gedryf is, ontbreek daar egter nog teoreties gefundeerde, praktiese voorstelle vir hoe so ’n herstandaardiseringsprojek daar sal uitsien. Hierdie studie verteenwoordig ’n praktiese benadering tot die herstandaardisering van Afrikaans, met ’n besondere fokus op die herstandaardisering van die Afrikaanse ortografie, deur ’n model daar te stel waarvolgens so ’n beoogde herstandaardiseringsprogram vir Afrikaans kan geskied. Dit word gedoen aan die hand van bestaande standaardiserings- en herstandaardiseringsteorie en ’n grondige ondersoek na die standaardiseringsgeskiedenis van Afrikaans ten einde te bepaal wat aanleiding gegee het tot hierdie herstandaardiseringstrewe in Afrikaans. Eerstens word daar gekyk na relevante standaardiseringsteorieë ten einde die belangrikste aspekte van taalstandaardisering te belig wat ’n rol speel in en aanleiding gee tot herstandaardisering. Die standaardiseringsgeskiedenis van Afrikaans word ook in oënskou geneem om te dui op die aspekte wat aanleiding gegee het tot die oproepe om die herstandaardisering van Afrikaans. Vervolgens word daar na die wêreldwye tendens van destandaardisering gekyk waardeur die geldigheid van standaardtale toenemend bevraagteken word. Hierna word herstandaardisering van nader beskou. Alhoewel die term reeds wyd gebruik word, bestaan daar nog nie diepgaande teoretiese beskrywings oor die aard van hierdie proses nie. Daar word dus vervolgens teoreties besin oor wat herstandaardisering behels. Verskeie voorbeelde van pogings tot die herstandaardisering van tale in Suid-Afrika, Afrika, en die res van die wêreld word ondersoek, waarna die redes vir ’n behoefte aan die herstandaardisering van Afrikaans uiteengesit word. Die standaardisering van die Afrikaanse ortografie, soos uiteengesit in die tien uitgawes van die Afrikaanse woordelys en spelreëls wat tot op hede verskyn het, kom volgende as navorsingsfokus aan bod. Die doel van hierdie kritiese evaluering van die primêre ortografiese standaardiseringsbron van Afrikaans is om te dui op die swakplekke in die huidige standaardiseringsproses wat ’n nuwe benadering tot die standaardisering van Afrikaans (dus die herstandaardisering van Afrikaans) noodsaak. Ten slotte word ’n model vir die herstandaardisering van die Afrikaanse ortografie, maar ook Afrikaans in geheel, voorgestel aan die hand van verskeie teoretiese en praktiese oorwegings soos in die loop van die studie uiteengesit.

O pior dos dois mundos traduz a hipótese de que atualmente adolescentes seriam tratados com a informalidade histórica associada à justiça juvenil, isto é, com poucas garantias processuais, ao mesmo tempo em que receberiam sanções mais duras, como é a atual tendência na justiça criminal adulta. Este trabalho investiga o que o Superior Tribunal de Justiça (STJ) decide em 53 casos paradigmáticos acerca dessas duas questões: proteção processual e controle penal de adolescentes. Verifica-se também como o tribunal decide em relação à gravidade dos casos, à possibilidade de privação de liberdade e à solução que o Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (ECA) confere a cada caso. Igualmente, pesquisa-se como o tribunal justifica suas decisões. A partir de elementos da sociologia de Pierre Bourdieu, constrói-se a decisão judicial punitiva como ato de Estado, que detém o monopólio da violência física e simbólica legítima. Essa construção sublinha a importância de se observar que a decisão judicial não acarreta apenas a imposição física de um castigo, mas também contribui para a instituição das formas legítimas de se pensar sobre o fenômeno. Igualmente, utiliza-se a noção de vocabulários de motivos de Wright Mills, que permite pensar as justificativas dos magistrados não como explicações de por que agiram de determinada forma, nem como mera justificação para encobrir suas reais intenções, mas como construções linguísticas cujo uso se estabiliza em certas ações socialmente situadas, tornando-se, portanto, os vocabulários socialmente aceitos nessas situações. Assim, padrão decisório e padrão de justificação são estudados em conjunto, dada sua contribuição para a legitimação de práticas e de discursos sobre a punição no campo jurídico e no restante do espaço social. Para apreender o padrão decisório do tribunal, utiliza-se a qualitative comparative analysis, que permite a verificação da associação entre os atributos das decisões e seu resultado. Infere-se que o tribunal institui como legítimos dois modelos distintos de justiça juvenil. Nos casos graves, amplia o controle penal e a possibilidade de aplicação de internação e restringe a proteção processual (mesmo em contrariedade ao ECA). Nos leves, restringe o controle penal e a possibilidade de internação e amplia a proteção processual (mesmo em contrariedade ao ECA). Há ainda os casos que são indiferentes à gravidade, pois se aplicam tanto a situações graves como leves. Nestes o STJ impõe o controle penal previsto no ECA (não costuma contrariá-lo para ampliar ou restringir o controle) e restringe a proteção processual (mesmo em contrariedade ao ECA). A ampliação do controle penal é sustentada pela afirmação do caráter punitivo da sanção e pela importância de se tomarem decisões de acordo com a gravidade da situação e com o caso concreto. Já a informalidade do procedimento é sustentada a partir de uma aproximação à justiça penal adulta, e não pela afirmação da finalidade reabilitadora da intervenção, como ocorreu historicamente na justiça de jovens. A restrição do controle penal é sustentada pela afirmação de que o ato sob julgamento não é grave. Já a ampliação de proteção processual é justificada pela ideia de que o procedimento da justiça juvenil deve respeitar a Constituição. Outros vocabulários não foram associados de modo unívoco a um resultado, mas revelam que o STJ realiza uma justaposição de modelos ideais de justiça, cuja relação é aditiva: é legítimo punir e educar; afastar a lei adulta e aproximá-la, focalizar a gravidade do ato e as características pessoais do adolescente, proteger o jovem e a sociedade. Se por um lado esses vocabulários não são construídos como contraditórios, tampouco há um esforço em mostrar sua ligação. / According to the worst of both worlds hypothesis, youth offenders are being treated with the informality (and consequent lack of procedural protection) that has historically guided juvenile justice, while simultaneously being punished in a harsher fashion (especially with incarceration), as is the tendency in adult justice. This dissertation investigates how the Superior Court of Justice (SCJ) rules in 53 landmark cases regarding penal control and procedural protection in juvenile justice, and how the court motivates its rulings. Three other elements of the courts attitudes toward cases are considered: seriousness of offenses, use of incarceration and the literal solution the Statute of the Child and the Adolescent provides to each case. Employing elements of Pierre Bourdieus theory, punitive judicial decisions are construed as acts of state, which carry the monopoly of physical and symbolic violence. According to this perspective, criminal courts rulings not only impose suffering, but also communicate the legitimate ways of conceiving crime and its appropriate reactions to it. Also, this dissertation relies on Wright Mills concept of vocabularies of motive to construe judicial motivation theoretically. This concept avoids framing motives as real explanations for why courts decide and as mere rationalizations that covers courts real intentions. Instead, courts motivations are interpreted as linguistic constructions whose use become stable in certain social situations, hence becoming the legitimate motives accepted in such situations. An adaptation of qualitative comparative analysis is used to account for the SCJ decision-making pattern. In sum, the SCJ institutes two legitimate juvenile justice models. In serious cases, the SCJ expands penal control and the use of incarceration, and restricts procedural protection (even against statutory provisions). In non-serious cases, the SCJ restricts penal control and the use of incarceration, and expands procedural protection (even against statutory provisions). Some cases apply to all youths, regardless of the crime committed. In these cases, the SCJ shows an intermediary stance regarding penal control (it simply follows statutory positions), and restricts procedural protection (even against statutory provisions). As to its reasoning, the SCJ expands penal control on the following grounds: i. state response has a punitive character; ii. seriousness of the offense is an important criterion to make decisions in youth justice, iii. as is the need to make individualized decisions. Procedural protection restriction, on the other hand, is justified by an embracement of criminal justice principles, which contrasts with the historical tendency of the juvenile justice system that had rejected these same principles. Penal control restriction is justified by the idea that some acts are not serious. Procedural protection expansion is justified by the idea that juvenile justice procedures should follow Constitutional principles. Other vocabularies employed by the SCJ have not been clearly associated with specific outcomes. However, they reveal that the court promotes a juxtaposition of different ideal models of justice. According to the SCJ, it is legitimate both to punish and to rehabilitate, to accept adult criminal law rules and to reject them, to focus on cases seriousness and on offenders characteristics, to protect offenders and society. Though these pairs are not presented as contradictory, their connection is not made explicit.

O pior dos dois mundos traduz a hipótese de que atualmente adolescentes seriam tratados com a informalidade histórica associada à justiça juvenil, isto é, com poucas garantias processuais, ao mesmo tempo em que receberiam sanções mais duras, como é a atual tendência na justiça criminal adulta. Este trabalho investiga o que o Superior Tribunal de Justiça (STJ) decide em 53 casos paradigmáticos acerca dessas duas questões: proteção processual e controle penal de adolescentes. Verifica-se também como o tribunal decide em relação à gravidade dos casos, à possibilidade de privação de liberdade e à solução que o Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (ECA) confere a cada caso. Igualmente, pesquisa-se como o tribunal justifica suas decisões. A partir de elementos da sociologia de Pierre Bourdieu, constrói-se a decisão judicial punitiva como ato de Estado, que detém o monopólio da violência física e simbólica legítima. Essa construção sublinha a importância de se observar que a decisão judicial não acarreta apenas a imposição física de um castigo, mas também contribui para a instituição das formas legítimas de se pensar sobre o fenômeno. Igualmente, utiliza-se a noção de vocabulários de motivos de Wright Mills, que permite pensar as justificativas dos magistrados não como explicações de por que agiram de determinada forma, nem como mera justificação para encobrir suas reais intenções, mas como construções linguísticas cujo uso se estabiliza em certas ações socialmente situadas, tornando-se, portanto, os vocabulários socialmente aceitos nessas situações. Assim, padrão decisório e padrão de justificação são estudados em conjunto, dada sua contribuição para a legitimação de práticas e de discursos sobre a punição no campo jurídico e no restante do espaço social. Para apreender o padrão decisório do tribunal, utiliza-se a qualitative comparative analysis, que permite a verificação da associação entre os atributos das decisões e seu resultado. Infere-se que o tribunal institui como legítimos dois modelos distintos de justiça juvenil. Nos casos graves, amplia o controle penal e a possibilidade de aplicação de internação e restringe a proteção processual (mesmo em contrariedade ao ECA). Nos leves, restringe o controle penal e a possibilidade de internação e amplia a proteção processual (mesmo em contrariedade ao ECA). Há ainda os casos que são indiferentes à gravidade, pois se aplicam tanto a situações graves como leves. Nestes o STJ impõe o controle penal previsto no ECA (não costuma contrariá-lo para ampliar ou restringir o controle) e restringe a proteção processual (mesmo em contrariedade ao ECA). A ampliação do controle penal é sustentada pela afirmação do caráter punitivo da sanção e pela importância de se tomarem decisões de acordo com a gravidade da situação e com o caso concreto. Já a informalidade do procedimento é sustentada a partir de uma aproximação à justiça penal adulta, e não pela afirmação da finalidade reabilitadora da intervenção, como ocorreu historicamente na justiça de jovens. A restrição do controle penal é sustentada pela afirmação de que o ato sob julgamento não é grave. Já a ampliação de proteção processual é justificada pela ideia de que o procedimento da justiça juvenil deve respeitar a Constituição. Outros vocabulários não foram associados de modo unívoco a um resultado, mas revelam que o STJ realiza uma justaposição de modelos ideais de justiça, cuja relação é aditiva: é legítimo punir e educar; afastar a lei adulta e aproximá-la, focalizar a gravidade do ato e as características pessoais do adolescente, proteger o jovem e a sociedade. Se por um lado esses vocabulários não são construídos como contraditórios, tampouco há um esforço em mostrar sua ligação. / According to the worst of both worlds hypothesis, youth offenders are being treated with the informality (and consequent lack of procedural protection) that has historically guided juvenile justice, while simultaneously being punished in a harsher fashion (especially with incarceration), as is the tendency in adult justice. This dissertation investigates how the Superior Court of Justice (SCJ) rules in 53 landmark cases regarding penal control and procedural protection in juvenile justice, and how the court motivates its rulings. Three other elements of the courts attitudes toward cases are considered: seriousness of offenses, use of incarceration and the literal solution the Statute of the Child and the Adolescent provides to each case. Employing elements of Pierre Bourdieus theory, punitive judicial decisions are construed as acts of state, which carry the monopoly of physical and symbolic violence. According to this perspective, criminal courts rulings not only impose suffering, but also communicate the legitimate ways of conceiving crime and its appropriate reactions to it. Also, this dissertation relies on Wright Mills concept of vocabularies of motive to construe judicial motivation theoretically. This concept avoids framing motives as real explanations for why courts decide and as mere rationalizations that covers courts real intentions. Instead, courts motivations are interpreted as linguistic constructions whose use become stable in certain social situations, hence becoming the legitimate motives accepted in such situations. An adaptation of qualitative comparative analysis is used to account for the SCJ decision-making pattern. In sum, the SCJ institutes two legitimate juvenile justice models. In serious cases, the SCJ expands penal control and the use of incarceration, and restricts procedural protection (even against statutory provisions). In non-serious cases, the SCJ restricts penal control and the use of incarceration, and expands procedural protection (even against statutory provisions). Some cases apply to all youths, regardless of the crime committed. In these cases, the SCJ shows an intermediary stance regarding penal control (it simply follows statutory positions), and restricts procedural protection (even against statutory provisions). As to its reasoning, the SCJ expands penal control on the following grounds: i. state response has a punitive character; ii. seriousness of the offense is an important criterion to make decisions in youth justice, iii. as is the need to make individualized decisions. Procedural protection restriction, on the other hand, is justified by an embracement of criminal justice principles, which contrasts with the historical tendency of the juvenile justice system that had rejected these same principles. Penal control restriction is justified by the idea that some acts are not serious. Procedural protection expansion is justified by the idea that juvenile justice procedures should follow Constitutional principles. Other vocabularies employed by the SCJ have not been clearly associated with specific outcomes. However, they reveal that the court promotes a juxtaposition of different ideal models of justice. According to the SCJ, it is legitimate both to punish and to rehabilitate, to accept adult criminal law rules and to reject them, to focus on cases seriousness and on offenders characteristics, to protect offenders and society. Though these pairs are not presented as contradictory, their connection is not made explicit.

In this thesis I discuss the semantic basis of the morphological form of predicates in N+e?képmx, a Northern Interior Salish language. Intransitive and transitive use of roots in Nle7képmx is morphologically marked; intransitives use a set of primary affixes and transitives use a set of transitivizers. I document the behavior of these morpho syntactic affixes with a subset of the predicates of Me?képmx to determine what is optional, what is obligatory and what is blocked. I link this to an analysis of argument structure of predicates and subsequently create a classification of predicate types. I present an overview of the intransitive and transitive morphology of Meképmx in Chapter One. In Chapter Two I discuss current literature regarding the syntactic and semantic diagnostics of unaccusative and unergative verbs. I create a semantic classification of the set of roots, and discuss the behavior of roots with morpho-syntactic affixes to determine the diagnostic potential of the affixes. In Chapter Three I discuss the potential of an intransitive-transitive classification of roots. The data show that there is an unergative and unaccusative distinction in the language, specific aspectual morpho-syntactic diagnostics distinguish unaccusatives and causative and desiderative distinguish unergatives. The traditional analyses of Salish languages as having a majority of unaccusative roots and no underlying transitives is confirmed.

Στην παρούσα μεταπτυχιακή εργασία, αρχικά, γίνεται λόγος για τα γενικά τυπικά χαρακτηριστικά που διέπουν το άσεμνο λεξιλόγιο, κυρίως της Ελληνικής. Στη συνέχεια, επιχειρείται μια μορφολογική ανάλυση των συστατικών που χρησιμοποιούνται για τον σχηματισμό των λέξεων του άσεμνου λεξιλογίου. Ωστόσο, βασικός στόχος είναι η διερεύνηση των σημασιολογικών και πραγματολογικών χαρακτηριστικών που διέπουν αυτό το ιδιαίτερα ενδιαφέρον τμήμα του λεξιλογίου μας. Παράλληλα, ασχολούμαι με περιπτώσεις υποκορισμού ή μεγέθυνσης μέσα στο άσεμνο λεξιλόγιο, με τους μηχανισμούς δανεισμού, με φαινόμενα ευφημισμού και δυσφημισμού και άλλα. Αναλυτικότερα, στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο, το οποίο λειτουργεί ως εναρκτήριο στάδιο ένταξης στο αντικείμενο μελέτης της εργασίας, παρουσιάζω τα περιθωριακά ιδιώματα της ελληνικής καθώς και τη δομή και λειτουργία των ειδικών λεξιλογίων στα οποία εντάσσεται και το προς εξέταση λεξιλόγιο. Στο τέλος του κεφαλαίου εξετάζω τις διαδικασίες και τους μηχανισμούς δανεισμού που υιοθετούνται για την εισαγωγή νέων λέξεων στην Ελληνική από άλλες γλώσσες, οι οποίες επηρέασαν και εμπλούτισαν με αυτόν τον τρόπο το άσεμνο λεξιλόγιο. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο ασχολούμαι με τις διαδικασίες σχηματισμού των λημμάτων του άσεμνου λεξιλογίου. Μορφολογικές διαδικασίες σχηματισμού λέξεων όπως είναι η παραγωγή και η σύνθεση, αλλά και δομές όπως οι συμφυρμοί, λεξικοποιημένες εκφράσεις κ. ά, θα με απασχολήσουν ιδιαίτερα στο κεφάλαιο αυτό. Το τρίτο κεφάλαιο είναι αφιερωμένο στις εννοιακές σχέσεις, στις σχέσεις δηλαδή των λέξεων με άλλες λέξεις, με τις οποίες σχετίζονται. Το βασικό θεωρητικό πρότυπο πάνω στο οποίο θα βασιστώ για την ανάλυση της λεξικής σημασιολογίας είναι αυτό που προτείνεται από τον Cruse (1986, 2004). Εννοιακές σχέσεις, όπως αυτή της πολυσημίας, της συνωνυμίας, της μετωνυμίας, της μερωνυμίας και της μεταφοράς θα με απασχολήσουν ιδιαίτερα. Στη συνέχεια, στο τελευταίο κεφάλαιο με τίτλο «Άσεμνο λεξιλόγιο και Πραγματολογία» αφού αναφερθώ στα κίνητρα που ωθούν στην χρήση αυτού του λεξιλογίου, θα εξετάσω τις λειτουργίες και τη χρήση των λέξεων αυτών μέσα σε συγκεκριμένα εκφωνήματα. Το περιβάλλον μέσα στο οποίο εμφανίζονται οι λέξεις αυτές αλλά και οι διαφορετικοί πολιτισμοί και η νοοτροπία των ομιλητών, όπως θα δούμε στο κεφάλαιο αυτό παίζει πολύ σημαντικό ρόλο. Ολοκληρώνοντας, θα επικεντρωθώ σε λέξεις που χαρακτηρίζονται ως άσεμνες και μπορούν να θεωρηθούν, με βάση πραγματολογικές μελέτες (μεταξύ αυτών Fraser, 2008) ότι λειτουργούν ως δείκτες οργάνωσης λόγου και συγκεκριμένα ως δείκτες προσοχής (attention markers). / Words are extremely important to people. They constitute a means of communication. It is through them that we express our thoughts, feelings and emotions. They are an integral part of our everyday life and they are with us wherever we go. Every word, of any kind, deserves our full attention and needs to be studied, no matter what kind of vocabulary it may be part of. The present thesis is about a very vibrant and expressive part of our language. It concerns “obscene vocabulary”, a domain on which very few scientific studies have been carried out to date. In this thesis I decided to examine the morphological, semantic and pragmatic aspects of the “obscene vocabulary” of the Modern Greek language. In the first chapter, I present the “marginal” jargons of the Modern Greek language, of which “obscene vocabulary” constitutes a part, based on the existing literature so far. Moreover, I propose an appropriate classification of the Greek data, based on Jay (1997). I also look into cases of euphemisms and calumny, and the way they are used in Modern Greek. In addition, I present some cases of loans concerning not only words, but expressions and even affixes coming from other languages as well. Loans and calques seem to constitute a great part of the Greek “obscene vocabulary”, most of them coming from Italian, French and Turkish. The second chapter is about the way that words and expressions of the “obscene vocabulary” are formed. It seems that this kind of vocabulary is highly productive in compound words. What is more, some prefixes and suffixes of the “purist Greek” which are not very productive in the Modern Greek common vocabulary, combined with popular words, they are frequently used to form “obscene” words, resulting in funny word formations. It should be noted here, that the formation of such words is subject to the same constraints as the rest of the vocabulary of the Modern Greek language. Finally, I look into compound expressions, lexicalized phrases, blends and the diminutive and augmentative suffixes and prefixes which are used in order to make a word sound less offensive, more familiar and even positive. The third chapter consists of a semantic analysis of the “obscene vocabulary” of the Modern Greek language, based on Cruse (1986, 2004) and Veloudis (2005). I look into polysemous and synonymous pairs of words and also into notions such as meronymy, metonymy and metaphors, concerning mostly parts of the human body. Finally, I try to analyze the pragmatic aspects of the Greek “obscene vocabulary” This field concerns the circumstances in which this kind of vocabulary is used, human communication, the intonation and the gestures that accompany the use of “obscene vocabulary” and every possible kind of social and psychological reasons, as well as the motives that make someone use this kind of vocabulary. Different languages reflect different cultures and have a different degree and way of using “obscene vocabulary”.