Doctorat en sciences psychologiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Dans ce travail, nous étudions les mécanismes du changement de langue lors de la reconnaissance visuelle de mots chez des trilingues français /anglais /espagnol. Dans un premier temps, nous avons examiné les processus d’accès pour chacune des langues étudiées, indépendamment de la présentation des autres langues. Nous nous sommes ensuite interrogés sur les relations entre les langues et l’organisation lexicale sous-jacente dans la mémoire multilingue, ainsi que la mise en place des mécanismes cognitifs permettant de passer d’une langue à une autre. Dans cette perspective, nous avons réalisé trois séries d’expériences afin d’examiner l’influence mutuelle des langues et le coût cognitif consécutif à un changement de langue lors de la reconnaissance visuelle de mots isolés. Nous avons comparé le traitement de mots spécifiques à différentes langues (ayant un degré de recouvrement orthographique minimal) en faisant varier les situations de changement et en recueillant des données comportementales et chronométriques dans des tâches de décision lexicale, de catégorisation sémantique et d’amorçage sémantique par traduction. Les résultats mettent en évidence un ralentissement global du traitement dû au changement pour les trois langues. Nous avons également observé un coût cognitif suite à un changement de langue pour les trois langues, mais plus important lorsqu’il s’opère entre les deux langues les moins maîtrisées (L2 vers L3 et L3 vers L2). Les données obtenues confirment l’hypothèse d’unités lexicales intégrées au sein d’un même lexique dans la mémoire multilingue. Les résultats sont interprétés dans leur ensemble dans le cadre des principaux modèles de la mémoire bilingue/multilingue. / The present work focuses on language switching mechanisms during visual word recognition in French / English / Spanish trilinguals. First, we examined access to processing for each language, independently from the presentation of other languages. Then, our concern was to determine the different relations between languages and the underlying lexical organization inside the multilingual memory, as well as the activation of cognitive mechanisms allowing language switching. With this goal in mind, we performed three series of experiments to examine the influences between the languages, and the cognitive cost subsequent to a language switching during visual word recognition. We compare the processing of non-cognate words belonging to the three languages, manipulating the language switching situations and recording behavioral and electrophysiological data during lexical decision, semantic categorization and semantic translation priming. Results of these experiments highlight a general slowdown of processing consecutive to a language switch for all languages. Moreover, we observed a cognitive cost related to language switching for all the three languages, but bilaterally larger when it concerns the two non-dominant languages (L2 to L3 and L3 to L2). The recording data confirms the hypothesis of lexical representations integrated into a shared lexicon of multilingual memory. The results are interpreted in the light of the main models accounting for bilingual memory.

Conventional hearing aid circuitry is often unable to provide children with hearing loss with sufficient high frequency information in order to develop adequate oral language skills due to the risk of acoustic feedback and the narrower frequency spectrum of conventional amplification. The purpose of this study was to investigate word recognition abilities of children with moderate-to-severe hearing loss using hearing aids with linear frequency transposition. Seven children with moderate-to-severe sensorineural hearing loss between the ages of 5 years 0 months and 7 years 11 months were selected for the participant group. Word recognition assessments were first performed with the participants using their own previous generation digital signal processing hearing aids. Twenty-five-word lists from the Word Intelligibility by Picture Identification (WIPI) test were presented to the participants in three test conditions, namely: at 55 dB HL in quiet, 55 dB HL with a +5 dB signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and at 35 dB HL. The participants were then fitted with an ISP-based hearing aid without linear frequency transposition, and the word recognition assessments were repeated with different WIPI word lists under the same conditions as the first assessment. Linear frequency transposition was then activated in the ISP-based hearing aid and different WIPI word lists were presented once more under identical conditions as the previous assessments. A 12-day acclimatization period was allowed between assessments, and all fittings were verified according to the DSL v5 fitting algorithm. Results indicated a significant increase of more than 12% in word recognition score for some of the participants when they used the ISP-based hearing aid with linear frequency transposition. A significant decrease was also seen for some of the participants when they used the ISP-based hearing aid with linear frequency transposition, but all participants presented with better word recognition scores when they used the ISP-based hearing aids without linear frequency transposition compared to their previous generation digital signal processing hearing aids. This study has shown that linear frequency transposition may improve the word recognition skills of some children with moderate-to-severe sensorineural hearing loss, and more research is needed to explore the criteria that can be used to determine candidacy for linear frequency transposition. / Dissertation (MCommunication Pathology)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology / Unrestricted

New PCI-e flash cards and SSDs supporting over 100,000 IOPs are now available, with several usecases in the design of a high performance storage system. By using an array of flash chips, arranged in multiple banks, large capacities are achieved. Such multi-banked architecture allow parallel read, write and erase operations. In a raw PCI-e flash card, such parallelism is directly available to the software layer. In addition, the devices have restrictions such as, pages within a block can only be written sequentially. The devices also have larger minimum write sizes (>4KB). Current flash translation layers (FTLs) in Linux are not well suited for such devices due to the high device speeds, architectural restrictions as well as other factors such as high lock contention. We present a FTL for Linux that takes into account the hardware restrictions, that also exploits the parallelism to achieve high speeds. We also consider leveraging the parallelism for garbage collection by scheduling the garbage collection activities on idle banks. We propose and evaluate an adaptive method to vary the amount of garbage collection according to the current I/O load on the device. For large scale distributed storage systems, flash memories are an excellent choice because flash memories consume less power, take lesser floor space for a target throughput and provide faster access to data. In a traditional distributed filesystem, even distribution is required to ensure load-balancing, balanced space utilisation and failure tolerance. In the presence of flash memories, in addition, we should also ensure that the numbers of writes to these different flash storage nodes are evenly distributed, to ensure even wear of flash storage nodes, so that unpredictable failures of storage nodes are avoided. This requires that we distribute updates and do garbage collection, across the flash storage nodes. We have motivated the distributed wearlevelling problem considering the replica placement algorithm for HDFS. Viewing the wearlevelling across flash storage nodes as a distributed co-ordination problem, we present an alternate design, to reduce the message communication cost across participating nodes. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our design through simulation.

Early reading instruction and identification of learners with reading problems prevent reading difficulties in the Intermediate Phase. The specific aim of this study is to explore the role of the Intermediate Phase educator to assess the learners’ reading skills by using observation and assessment activities, in order to identify learners with reading problems. The literature study on reading activities explored the letters of the alphabet, phonemic awareness, spelling, word- recognition, assessment and word-knowledge. The qualitative research was conducted empirically in the form of a case study of one learner from the South African public primary school based in Ikageng location, Potchefstroom. The role of the Intermediate Phase educator is to develop and administer the reading activities, observe a learner when he or she recites; writes and identifies the letters of the alphabet; segment words to show his or her phonological awareness skill; spell words in the dictation test including any written activity; and reads aloud the single written words to test his or her word recognition ability. The themes that emerged from the empirical study are as follows: difficulty in sequencing written letters of the alphabet, inability to segment words, spelling problems and word recognition problems. The study indicated that the participant’s reading problems are based on an inability to decode single words. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Educational Psychology)

La lecture est au cœur des apprentissages scolaires et, par le fait même, de la réussite dans bon nombre de disciplines scolaires. Toutefois, ce ne sont pas tous les apprenants qui ont de la facilité à développer cette habileté. En effet, certains élèves éprouvent des difficultés en lecture, et ce, tout au long de leur parcours scolaire. C’est le cas, notamment, des élèves présentant une dyslexie, soit un trouble d’apprentissage de la lecture. La dyslexie serait associée à un déficit phonologique qui entraverait, notamment, la réalisation des correspondances entre les graphèmes et les phonèmes, lors de la reconnaissance des mots. Comme cette dernière est spécifique à la lecture et fortement liée à la compréhension de textes, les dyslexiques éprouvent donc des difficultés importantes à lire. La reconnaissance des mots implique l’activation et l’utilisation de différentes connaissances se rapportant aux propriétés phonologiques, morphologiques et visuo-orthographiques des mots écrits. Ces connaissances et les procédures qui leur sont associées se mettent en place dans les premières années de scolarisation chez les élèves ayant un développement typique de la lecture. Elles leur permettent de créer des représentations orthographiques correspondant de plus en plus à la norme. La qualité de ces représentations emmagasinées en mémoire contribue à la réussite en reconnaissance des mots. Pour les élèves dyslexiques, les représentations des mots manquent toutefois de précision, ce qui engendre des erreurs lors de la lecture. Comme les connaissances et les procédures phonologiques sont généralement réputées déficitaires chez les élèves dyslexiques, des chercheurs tentent depuis plusieurs années d’identifier d’autres procédures qui pourraient pallier ces lacunes, et ainsi aider ces élèves. Une piste de recherche privilégiée est d’étudier les connaissances morphologiques des élèves dyslexiques lors de la lecture. En effet, étant donné que les mots comportent des propriétés non phonologiques, notamment des propriétés morphologiques, il est possible d’envisager que ces élèves utilisent ces autres propriétés pour mieux reconnaitre les mots. Le bilan de la littérature scientifique portant sur cette question ne permet pas actuellement de dresser un portrait clair de la situation. Une raison pouvant rendre compte de ce constat concerne la grande variabilité des tâches retenues dans les différentes études et le fait que certaines tâches ont été réalisées oralement et d’autres, à l’écrit. Ces tâches varient aussi en termes de contraintes cognitives. Il n’est donc pas surprenant qu’elles soient associées à des taux de réussite variables. De plus, puisque les connaissances orales sont les premières à se développer et qu’elles servent généralement de base sur laquelle se construisent celles à l’écrit, il est possible de penser que les tâches administrées oralement soient mieux réussies que celles à l’écrit. Or, les études n’ont pas tenté de hiérarchiser les tâches pour mieux comprendre les résultats des travaux menés dans le domaine et ainsi rendre compte du rôle potentiel des connaissances morphologiques en lecture. Également, elles n’ont pas pris en considération les modalités dans lesquelles les tâches sont administrées (à l’oral ou à l’écrit). Dans notre étude, l’objectif est donc d’évaluer et de comparer les connaissances morphologiques, en modalités orale et écrite, d’élèves dyslexiques du primaire à partir de différentes tâches hiérarchisées. Les performances de ces élèves ont été comparées à celles de deux groupes de normo-lecteurs, soit des élèves plus jeunes, mais ayant un même niveau de lecture (CL) et des élèves du même âge chronologique (CA), pour mieux comprendre les comportements en lecture des élèves dyslexiques. Pour évaluer les habiletés en lecture, nous avons utilisé une épreuve de reconnaissance des mots de la batterie de tests WIAT-II, une épreuve de compréhension en lecture de la batterie de tests K- ABC et une épreuve de vocabulaire (EVIP). Pour l’évaluation des connaissances morphologiques, trois tâches ayant des contraintes cognitives différentes (jugement de relation, décomposition et jugement de plausibilité) ont été retenues à la suite d’une revue de la littérature. Ces tâches ont été administrées à tous les participants d’abord à l’oral, puis à l’écrit quelques jours plus tard. Les résultats des analyses de variance menées révèlent que les élèves dyslexiques obtiennent des taux de réussite généralement comparables aux CL dans les tâches morphologiques. Cela corrobore les résultats d’autres études et correspond à nos attentes. Toutefois, pour certaines tâches, ils ne se distinguent pas significativement des CA, ce qui pourrait indiquer que les connaissances morphologiques des élèves dyslexiques sont plus élaborées que ce que nous avions anticipé par rapport à leurs habiletés en lecture. Nous avons aussi observé un effet des contraintes cognitives rattachées à chacune des tâches morphologiques. Un effet de la modalité d’administration des tâches a également été observé, mais seulement pour la tâche de jugement de plausibilité, et ce, uniquement pour les élèves dyslexiques. Ainsi, de façon générale, et contrairement à nos attentes, la modalité ne semble pas avoir eu d’impact sur les performances pour les groupes CA et CL. Ces résultats ont des retombées théoriques et pratiques qui sont abordées à la fin de cette thèse. / Reading is at the heart of school learning and likewise, at the heart of success in many school subjects. However, not all learners develop this skill with ease. In fact, some students will experience reading difficulties throughout their school years. It is particularly the case of students with dyslexia, a reading disability. Dyslexia would be associated to a phonological deficit which would hinder, in the learners that are affected, the achievement of graphemes-phonemes correspondences during word recognition. Since this is said to be specific to reading and strongly linked to text comprehension, dyslexic students experience significant difficulties to read. Word recognition involves the activation and use of various types of knowledge linked to phonological, morphological and visuo-orthographic properties of written words. This knowledge and the procedures which are associated to them are established during the first years of schooling for students whose reading development is typical. They enable them to create orthographic representations corresponding more and more to the standard. The quality of these representations stored in memory contribute to success in word recognition. However, for dyslexic students, word representations often lack precision, which leads to errors during reading. Since phonological knowledge and procedures are generally said to be deficient in dyslexic students, researchers have been trying for several years to identify other procedures that could be useful to them. For this reason, these researchers are interested in the morphological knowledge of dyslexic students during reading. Consequently, since words have some properties that are non-phonological, in particular morphological properties, it is possible to consider that these students use these other properties to recognize words. The current review of the scientific literature on this question does not provide a clear picture of the situation. A reason that could account for this observation concerns the great variability of the tasks selected in the different studies and the fact that some tasks were performed in oral modality and others, in written modality. These tasks also vary in terms of cognitive constraints. It is thus not surprising that they are associated with varying success rates. Furthermore, since oral knowledge is the first to develop and that it generally serves as the basis on which written knowledge is built, it is possible to think that those administered orally will have a better success rate than written tasks. However, studies have not attempted to hierarchize tasks to better understand the results of work carried out in the field and thus account for the potential role of morphological knowledge in reading. They also have not considered the modality in which the tasks are administered (oral or written). In this study, our objective is thus to assess et compare morphological knowledge, in oral and written modalities, of elementary school dyslexic students by using different tasks that are hierarchized from the start. The performances of these students were compared with those of two groups of normal readers: younger students, but with the same reading level as the dyslexic students (RC) and same age students (AC), in order to better understand reading behaviors of dyslexic students. To assess reading abilities, a word recognition test from the WIAT-II test battery, a reading comprehension test from the K-ABC test battery and a vocabulary test (EVIP) were used. For the evaluation of morphological knowledge, three tasks (morphological relation judgment, decomposition and plausibility judgment) with different cognitive constraints were selected following a literature review. These tasks were administered to all participants first orally then, several days later, in writing. The results from the analysis of variance conducted reveal that dyslexic students obtain success rates generally comparable to RC in morphological tasks. This corroborates the results of other studies and meets our expectations. However, for certain tasks, they are not significantly different from AC, which could indicate that the morphological knowledge of dyslexic students is more elaborate than what we have anticipated in relation to their reading abilities. We also observed an effect of the cognitive constraints attached to each of the morphological tasks. Furthermore, an effect of the task administration modality was observed, but only for the plausibility judgment task and only for dyslexic students. Hence, in general, contrary to our expectations, the modality does not seem to have had an impact on the performances of AC and RC groups. These results have theoretical and practical consequences which are discussed at the end of this thesis.

La dyslexie est un trouble neurodéveloppemental nuisant au développement normal de la fluidité en lecture. Certains processus de base à la lecture pourraient être atteints chez les dyslexiques et entraîner des répercussions touchant les représentations de haut niveau des mots en découlant : orthographique, phonologique et sémantique. Un de ces processus de base est le déploiement spatio-temporel de l’attention sur des séquences de stimuli multiples alignés à l’horizontale. L’efficacité de ce déploiement pourrait être étroitement liée à l’expertise en lecture chez les normo-lecteurs, et des irrégularités dans celui-ci pourraient être observées chez des dyslexiques. Malheureusement, la caractérisation de ce déploiement en contexte de reconnaissance de mots écrits, son implication dans la vitesse de lecture et (potentiellement) même dans certaines habiletés langagières demeurent largement sous-spécifiées. Le premier article de cette thèse vise à révéler les divergences du déploiement de l’attention dans le temps et dans l’espace pendant la reconnaissance d’un mot familier chez un groupe d’adultes dyslexiques par rapport à un groupe de normo-lecteurs. Les groupes sont appariés en termes d’âge et de fonctionnement intellectuel. Cet objectif est poursuivi avec la technique de sonde attentionnelle. Les résultats révèlent que les dyslexiques dirigent moins de ressources attentionnelles vers la première lettre d’un mot, ce qui est sous-optimal considérant que la première lettre d’un mot est particulièrement informative sur son identité. Le deuxième article de cette thèse vise à déterminer si les habiletés en lecture de texte et de traitement phonologique chez les dyslexiques peuvent bénéficier d’un entraînement attentionnel court. Un protocole utilisant un entraînement visuo-attentionnel (NeuroTracker) et un entraînement placebo chez une vingtaine d’adultes dyslexiques met en évidence des gains systématiques immédiatement après l’entraînement actif. L’ordre des entraînements (actif puis placebo, ou placebo puis actif) était contrebalancé entre deux groupes. Ces gains s’observent en vitesse de lecture, et même au niveau de la conscience phonologique. Le troisième article de cette thèse apporte finalement une contribution additionnelle significative pour l’évaluation de la vitesse de la lecture chez les adultes universitaires franco-québécois. L’utilisation des phrases-tests d’un outil existant (MNRead) a été intégrée à un protocole de présentation visuelle sérielle rapide pour l’évaluation de la vitesse de lecture. En plus de cet ensemble de phrases-test, quatre autres ensembles de phrases-test ont été normés. L’outil développé permet d’obtenir une mesure de la vitesse de lecture fiable chez un même individu à différentes reprises (Exp. 1) et il satisfait différents standards psychométriques (Exps. 1 et 2), en étant notamment sensible à la présence des difficultés en lecture retrouvées chez les dyslexiques (Exp. 2). En somme, il appert que certains processus visuo-attentionnels sous-tendent l’expertise en lecture et que ceux-ci pourraient présenter des irrégularités chez les dyslexiques. La caractérisation d’un déploiement attentionnel sous-optimal en reconnaissance de mots familiers tout comme les bénéfices obtenus en lecture et en traitement phonologique subséquents à un entraînement attentionnels mettent en lumière l’importance de ces processus de base en lecture. / Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the normal development of reading fluency. Deficits affecting basic reading processes may affect dyslexics and would thus alter high-level word representations: orthographic, phonological, and semantic. One of these basic processes is the attentional mechanism that is involved in the visual processing of horizontal multi-element strings such as words. The effectiveness of this mechanism could be closely related to reading expertise in normal readers and anomalies thereof could be observed in dyslexics. Unfortunately, it remains unclear how attention is deployed during visual word recognition and how it may impact on reading speed and potentially on certain language skills. The first article of this thesis aims to shed light on divergences in the deployment of attention through time and space during the recognition of familiar words in a group of adults with dyslexia in comparison to normal readers. These groups were matched in terms of age and intellectual functioning. This objective is pursued with the attentional probe technique. Results reveal that less attentional resources are directed to the first letter of a word in dyslexics, which is suboptimal considering that the first letter of a word has a higher diagnostic value than any other letter position. The goal of the second article is to determine if reading fluency and phonological awareness in dyslexics may benefit from a short attentional training. The effects of an active training using the NeuroTracker program and a placebo training in adults with dyslexia shows systematic gains immediately after active training. The order of the training (active then placebo, or placebo then active) was counter-balanced across two groups. These gains are observed on reading speed as well as on phonological awareness. The third article of this thesis finally brings a significant additional contribution to the evaluation of reading speed among Quebec university students. The use of test sentences from an existing tool (MNRead) has been incorporated into a rapid visual serial presentation protocol to assess reading speed. In addition to this set of test sentences, four other sets of test sentences have been standardized. The tool is reliable, as reading speed measurements are similar in the same individual at different times (Exp 1). Moreover, it meets different psychometric standards (Exps 1 and 2) while being particularly sensitive to the presence of the reading difficulties found in dyslexics (Exp.2). In sum, it appears that particular visual-attention processes underlie reading expertise and that these show anomalies in dyslexics. The characterization of a suboptimal attention deployment in visual word recognition as well as the benefits obtained in reading and phonological awareness subsequent to an attentional training highlight the importance of these basic processes in reading.

No description available.

As theories on the process of reading have advanced so definitional changes have resulted. This in turn has impacted on the teaching of reading. Comprehension is not the result of successful word recognition, rather, meaning is constructed by the reader using various sources as a frame of reference. Reading requires an interaction between the reader, the text read and the context in vvhich it is read. Reader factors involve language competencies, prior knowledge, vocabulary, the use of strategies and attitudes and motivation. The text may be narrative or expository and encompasses instructional materials. The tvvo broad categories in the context are the classroom setting and the instructional context. An 'interactive' or 'organisational' paradigm underlying inclusion recognises individual differences as being a probable cause of failure but postulates that the school and all that it encompasses, can be a barrier to learning and development. As such it is not deficit driven, attributing failure to learners alone. In the case of reading, this means not attributing reading failure to the reader alone but acknowledging the role of the text and the context. This point of departure is confirmed by an interactive model of disability, which, while still explaining reading deficits, advances that alternative areas also be investigated. Focusing on abilities is conducive to proactivity in the prevention of barriers to learning and development. To be inclusive therefore, mainstream schools generally and classrooms specifically, will need to be reformed and restructured to be more responsive to learners experiencing barriers to learning and development. This will require enhanced teaching methods and flexible support systems. Accommodating diversity presupposes the acknowledgement of each learner's uniqueness in order to meet individual needs. This will be facilitated when in the compilation of a reading programme to meet individual needs, the reader, the text and context are matched through assessment and instruction . A reading programme to enhance the teaching of reading and thereby meet individual needs has been compiled and implemented in a mainstream, intermediate phase class. From this practical experience and the literature studied, guidelines for the teaching of reading have been formulated for teachers in the intermediate phase to use within the context of inclusion. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Orthopedagogics)

本研究之目的在於比較蒙特梭利語文教育與全語言教育對不同年齡幼兒閱讀能力影響之差異。研究對象為接受蒙特梭利教育與全語言教育的中班與大班學前幼兒。研究者選取兩所位於台北市且實施蒙特梭利與全語言教育之幼稚園，依照這些受試者的年齡、家庭社經地位、在園時間、入園時間及畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗分數等條件後，進行配對選取，最後選取的總受試幼兒共58名。本研究中之幼兒閱讀能力指幼兒聲韻覺識能力、認字量與閱讀理解能力。研究工具在聲韻覺識測驗上採用侯淑柔、林佩蓉（2007）所編製之聲韻覺識測驗中之得分，認字與閱讀理解力採用楊怡婷（1995）改編之故事及自編之理解能力測驗，幼兒閱讀能力之資料皆至幼稚園對幼兒施測而得。 研究結果顯示，幼兒閱讀能力，有「年齡」的差異，大班生優於中班生；幼兒閱讀能力有「教學法」的差異，接受蒙特梭利教學的幼兒在閱讀能力的表現上優於全語言教育的幼兒；在「年齡」與「教學法」的交互作用上並無顯著之差異。而單獨進行大班幼兒閱讀能力的差異檢定發現，大班幼兒在聲韻覺識上的表現呈現顯著差異，接受蒙特梭利教學的幼兒在閱讀能力的表現上優於全語言教育的幼兒，而在認字和閱讀理解上則無顯著差異；在中班幼兒閱讀能力的差異檢定結果，中班幼兒閱讀能力表現無論在聲韻覺識、認字量和閱讀理解上皆無顯著差異。此外，針對所有閱讀能力測驗結果進行相關分析後，發現聲韻覺識、認字量和閱讀理解兩兩之間皆具有顯著之相關，而在控制聲韻覺識變項之後，認字和閱讀理解呈現顯著的高度相關，而控制認字變項之後，聲韻覺識和閱讀理解之間的關係便消失了，足見認字在幼兒閱讀能力中所佔之重要角色。 / The purpose of this study was to compare the literacy of young children who attended Montessori or Whole Language education program. Their literacy which includes word recognition, reading comprehension, and phonological awareness. The sample (n=58) consisted of the pre-kindergarten (age 4-5, n=26) and kindergarten (age 5-6, n=32). Schools were selected base on grossly similar school profiles on Taipei city. To control and match age, socioeconomic status (SES), the score of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised of the children whose attended different programs. Results of the study showed significant difference on “age” and “education program” : The children in the kindergarten whose literacy was better than the children in the pre- kindergarten；the children attended Montessori education program whose literacy was better than the children attended Whole Language education program. Significant different on “phonological awareness” : The children in the kindergarten of the Montessori education program whose phonological awareness was higher than the children in the pre- kindergarten of the Whole Language education program, but no significant difference on “word recognition” and “reading comprehension”. The children in the pre-kindergarten between Montessori education program and Whole Language education program showed no significant difference on “word recognition” and “reading comprehension” and “phonological awareness”.