This thesis analyzes the sociolinguistic situations in postcolonial Latin America and francophone North Africa (the Maghreb) through a comparative lens. Specifically, it examines the ways in which Spain and France’s differing colonial agendas and language ideologies affected the relationships between colonizer and colonized, and, by extension, the role that Spanish and French play(ed) in these regions after decolonization. Finally, it explores how Spain and France’s contemporary discourses frame colonial participation in the two languages’ development, and the psychological effects these ideologies have had on the formerly colonized.

Notre recherche propose une analyse sociolinguistique comparée des contextes, des modalités de l’intégration du berbère dans l’enseignement en Algérie (de 1995 à 2015) et au Maroc (de 2003 à 2015) consécutives de modifications des politiques linguistiques institutionnelles. Ces transformations sont intervenues sur une période de temps assez courte (une décennie), pour réguler et/ou anticiper la pression revendicative. L’examen de chacun des champs considérés comporte chacun un volet descriptif et un volet analytique. En partant du constat empirique immédiat de l’existence de points de convergence et de divergence entre les deux pays dans cette « nouvelle politique scolaire berbère », nous proposons une description de la structuration des écoles, des choix de la langue à enseigner : sa standardisation-normativisation, sa codification graphique et les choix d'élaboration didactique retenus. La description confirme les continuités et les discontinuités entre les deux États. Notre objectif est de rechercher une signification sociolinguistique à cette offre éducative différenciée. Les sources et les matériaux diversifiés issus d’une investigation sur les deux terrains sont analysés dans une tentative comparative et évaluative transdisciplinaire, à la lumière de l’apport conceptuel : du champ des études berbères, de la sociolinguistique « périphérique », de l’aménagement linguistique et de la socio didactique. L’examen des données synchroniques et diachroniques et de matériaux institutionnels et extra institutionnels conduisent à identifier les niveaux de convergences et les divergence entre les deux États et d’affirmer le caractère institutionnalisé de la minoration du berbère. / Our work consists of a comparative sociolinguistic analysis of the contexts, methods of integration and implementation of Berber language teaching in Algeria (from 1995 to 2015) and Morocco (from 2003 to 2015) following changes to institutional linguistic policies.These changes were brought in, over quite a short period of time (a decade), to regulate and/or anticipate social pressure in favour of the introduction of Berber in state schools. The examination of each of the three contexts consists of : a descriptive and an analytical angles. Departing from the empirical observation of the existence of points of convergence and divergence between the two countries in this “new Berber education policy”, we describe the structuration of teaching, the choices in relation to which language to teach, its standardisation, its graphic codification, as well as the objectives and didactic techniques implemented. This description confirms and discerns the continuities and discontinuities between the two states’ experiences and language policies. Our objective has been to seek out a sociolinguistic signification to this differentiated education. Diverse sources and materials resulting from fieldwork in the two countries are analysed with the aim of creating a transdisciplinary evaluation in light of conceptual work developed in the field of Berber studies, namely “peripheral” sociolinguistics, « language planning » and institutional tools. The interrogation of synchronic and diachronic data allows us to identify the essential points of convergence and divergence between the two States and to affirm the institutionalised nature of the minoration of the Berber language. / Anadi-ya, d tazrawt d wesleḍ di tmettsnilest** tasmenyifant ɣef tegnatin d iberdan tuɣ Lezzayer d Lmerruk deg usekcem n uselmed n tmaziɣt ɣer iɣerbazen. Tagnit-a yewwi-tt ubeddel d-imlen tasertit d-iglan s tsertiyin tisnilsanin timaynutin.Tineḍra-ya myezwarent-d s wazal n 10 iseggasen. Usant-d ad semsawint annar n tutlayin neɣ ahat ad sifessent ddeṛk isers fell-asent umennuɣ d usuter isertanen n Imussuyen idlesanen imaziɣen. Ihi ad nessenqed 3 inurar di tezrawt-a. Yal annar ila sin iswiren : Aswir uglim* : seg wayen d yufraren deg wennar n unadi, iban-aɣ d kra n ukanzi d umgirredger snat agi n tmura, deg wayen umi neqqar « Tasertit tasegmant i tmaziɣt»**. Ad d-nessifer : asbeddi n uselmed, abraz n tutlayt, afran ugemmay d wamek ttwafernen isufar d iswiyen n uselmed. Aglam n yal annar isseflali-d ifṛez-d kra seg tmuɣliwin-nneɣ ɣef wayen issemlalen turmilin n uselmed di tmura-ya. Aswir usliḍ : Iswi ameqqran d-yufraren, d asegzi n inumak d lǧeṛṛa n wayen akk uqment tmura-a deg wennar n uselmed n tmaziɣt, ulamma mgarradent di kra n tsetwilin*. Nnnuda anamek imettilesi ila uselmed n tmaziɣt di yal tamurt, acimi d wamek d-myezgant tmura-ya. Isufar d isenfaṛen nesseqdec di tezrawt-nneɣ d ayen d-nhawec, d-nessukkes achal d aseggas aya. Nesbedd tazrawt-agi ɣef tezrawin tismazaɣin d wayen akk d nessmed si tmettsnilest tunnaḍt** akked tafernutlayt**. Nuna daɣen ayen akk d-iwwi umezruy, tasnamta*, tasertit d tantrupulujit akken ad aɣ-d-iban wadeg n tmaziɣt d wayen tt-issawden akka tella deg uselmed.Nessaweḍ, nessafer-d kra n yigmaḍ : tamaziɣt mazal d-teffiɣ seg waddad*-ines, mazal d tarbibt n iduba n tmura-ya. Anekcum is deg wennar uselmed ur yelli d asnerni i as d-yewwi, d asḍerref i tt-isḍerrif. S waya timura nessbent addag adday n tmaziɣt

This study investigates the impact of Family Language Policy (FLP) on the conservation of minority languages in Zimbabwe. Family language policy is a newly emerging sub field of language planning and policy which focuses on the explicit and overt planning in relation to language use within the home among family members. The study is therefore predicated on the view that the conservation of any minority language largely depends on intergenerational transmission of the particular language. Intergenerational transmission is dependent in part, on the language practices in the home and therefore on family language policy. To understand the nature, practice and negotiation of family language policy in the context of minority language conservation, the study focuses on the perspectives of a sample of 34 L1 Kalanga parents and 28 L1 Tonga parents, who form the main target population. In this study, parents are considered to be the ‘authorities’ within the family, who have the capacity to articulate and influence language use and language practices. Also included in this study are the perspectives of language and culture associations representing minority languages regarding their role in the conservation of minority languages at the micro community level. Representatives of Kalanga Language and Cultural Development Association (KLCDA), Tonga Language and Culture Committee (TOLACCO) as well Zimbabwe Indigenous Languages Promotion Association (ZILPA) were targeted. This research takes on a qualitative approach. Methodologically, the study deployed the interview as the main data collection tool. Semi structured interviews were conducted with L1 Kalanga and L1 Tonga parents while unstructured interviews were conducted with the representatives of language and culture associations. This study deploys the language management theory and the reversing language shift theory as the analytical lenses that enable the study to understand the mechanics of family language policy and their impact on intergenerational transmission of minority languages in Zimbabwe. Language management theory allows for the extendibility of the tenets of language policy into the family domain and specifically affords the study to explore the dialectics of parental language ideologies and family language practices in the context of minority language conservation in Zimbabwe. The reversing language shift theory also emphasises the importance of the home domain in facilitating intergenerational transmission of minority languages. Findings of the study demonstrate that family language policy is an important aspect in intergenerational transmission of minority languages, itself a nuanced and muddled process. The research demonstrates that there is a correlation between parental language ideologies and parental disposition to articulate and persue a particular kind of family language policy. In particular, the study identified a pro-minority home language and pro- bilingual family language policies as the major parental language ideologies driving family language policies. However, the research reveals that parental language ideologies and parental explicitly articulated family language polices alone do not guarantee intergenerational transmission of minority languages, although they are very pertinent. This, as the study argues, is because family language policy is not immune to external language practices such as the school language policy or the wider language policy at the macro state level. Despite parents being the main articulators of family language policy, the study found out that in some instances, parental ideologies do not usually coincide with children’s practices. The mismatch between parental preferences and their children’s language practices at home are a reproduction, in the home, of extra familial language practices. This impacts family language practices by informing the child resistant agency to parental family language policy, leading to a renegotiation of family language policy. The research also demonstrates that parents, especially those with high impact beliefs are disposed to take active steps, or to employ language management strategies to realise their desired language practices in the home. The study demonstrates that these parental strategies may succeed in part, particularly when complemented by an enabling sociolinguistic environment beyond the home. The articulation of a pro-Tonga only family language policy was reproduced in the children’s language practices, while the preference for a pro- bilingual family language policy by the majority L1 Kalanga parents was snubbed for a predominantly Ndebele-only practice by their children. In most cases, the research found out that language use in formal domains impacted on the success of FLP. Tonga is widely taught in Schools within Binga districts while Kalanga is not as widespread in Bulilima and Mangwe schools. Ndebele is the most widespread language in Bulilima and Mangwe schools. As such; children of L1 Kalanga parents tend to evaluate Kalanga negatively while having positive associations with Ndebele. All these language practices are deemed to impact on family language policy and therefore on intergenerational transmission of minority languages in Zimbabwe. The desire by parents for the upward mobility of children results in them capitulating to the wider socio political reality and therefore to the demands of their children in terms of language use in the home. The study therefore concludes that family language policy is an important frontier in the fight against language shift and language endangerment, given the importance of the home in intergenerational transmission of minority languages. The study therefore implores future research to focus on this very important but largely unresearched sub field of language policy. The study observes that most researches have focused on the activities of larger state institutions and organisations and how they impact on minority language conservation, to the detriment of the uncontestable fact that the survival of any language depends on the active use of the language by the speakers. The research also recommends that future practice of language policy should not attempt to promote minority languages by discouraging the use of other majority languages, but rather, speakers should embrace bilingualism as a benefit and a resource and not as a liability. The interaction between the top down state language policy and the bottom up micro family language policy should be acknowledged and exploited, in such a way that the two can be deployed as complementary approaches in minority language conservation. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Languages, Linguistics and Literature)

This study examines the historical and contemporary sociolinguistic status of three minority languages, namely Shangani, Kalanga and Tonga in Chiredzi, Plumtree and Binga respectively within the civil courts of Zimbabwe. This research problematizes the issue of language choice and usage in civil courtroom discourse by native speakers of the languages under study. The background to this research endeavor is the historical dominance of English, Shona and Ndebele in public institutions as media of communication even in areas where minority languages are dominant, a situation that has resulted in minority languages having a restricted functional space in public life. Respondents in this research included native speakers of the languages under study who have attended civil courtroom sessions either as accused persons or complainants, members of rural communities including community leaders, court interpreters stationed at Binga, Chiredzi and Plumtree magistrates‟ courts and members of the Judicial Services Commission (JSC). Data was also collected from minority language advocacy groups including Tonga Language and Cultural Committee (TOLACCO), Shangani Promotion Trust (SPAT) and Kalanga Language and Culture Development (KLCDA) using semi-structured interviews. In addition, participant observation of civil courtroom proceedings involving native speakers of Kalanga, Tonga and Shangani was done. Documentary analysis of colonial and postcolonial language policies in Zimbabwe was also done. Data was analyzed using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Ecology of Language theories. The findings for this research revealed that historically, language policy making in Zimbabwe has impacted negatively on the functional roles of Shangani, Tonga and Kalanga in civil courtroom communication because of the lack of implementation clauses in national constitutions. Furthermore, language attitudes that were analyzed in conjunction with a number of factors including age, demographics, naming of provinces, awareness of constitutional provisions on language and language-in-education policies were found to be key determinant factors influencing the sociolinguistic status of Kalanga, Tonga and Shangani in civil courtroom discourse. Court interpreting and initiatives by language advocacy groups also impacted on the sociolinguistic status of the languages under study in civil courtroom interaction. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Phil. (Language, Linguistics and Literature)

Cross-dialectal acceptance of a written standard (CAWS) is essential for that standard to be used by speakers of divergent dialects of a language. Earlier works have focused on the influence of linguistic differences on comprehension of the standard, but little attention has been given the influence of socio-cultural and programmatic factors on acceptance of a standard. Case studies of the Lelemi and Likpakpaanl language development programmes provide information through which the socio-cultural and programmatic factors which influence CAWS can be identified. Due to the complex nature of the topic, various indicators are used to measure levels of acceptance of the written standard by speakers of each dialect. Socio-cultural factors which influence CAWS relate either to the language community's degree of interdialectal communication or to their perception of being a unified people. These factors include social structure, governance, cultural and religious activities, and patterns of marriage, commerce, transportation and migration. The existence of extensive social networks and the role of opinion leaders were also influential Activities of the two language development programmes which positively influenced CAWS included those which informed and involved speakers of all dialects of the language. These activities built on the existing levels of unity and inter-dialectal communication by using existing social networks. The Lelemi programme involved speakers of all dialects more uniformly than did the Likpakpaanl programme. However, both programmes informed and involved speakers of all dialects to some extent. The dialect communities of each language did not equally accept the written standards. Acceptance appeared to correlate more strongly with programmatic factors than with sociocultural or linguistic factors. This thesis provides a model for language teams to follow in 1) identifying socio-cultural factors which have the potential to influence CAWS; 2) applying knowledge about the socio-cultural situation to programme planning; and, 3) assessing levels of acceptance by speakers of each dialect. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

Réalisée à partir d’archives diplomatiques, cette thèse propose une lecture de l’histoire de l’enseignement du français en Palestine depuis le point de vue diplomatique. Elle propose d’étudier les objectifs politiques et symboliques qui ont guidé l’évolution de ce réseau d’enseignement du français. A la croisée de questionnements communs à la didactique du français langue étrangère et à la sociolinguistique, il s’agit de s’intéresser aux conceptions de la langue et de l’altérité sous-jacentes à la politique de diffusion du français. La thèse s’attache également à caractériser les politiques de diffusion du français dans un espace particulier : la Palestine. Ces questionnements permettent de formuler une certaine continuité dans le type de relations entretenues à travers l’enseignement du français et de poser la question de ce que serait non plus une politique de diffusion mais une politique de l’appropriation. / Based upon the interpretation of diplomatic archives, this doctoral thesis presents an understanding of the history of French language teaching in Palestine, from the diplomatic point of view. It aims at studying the political and symbolical goals guiding the evolution of the French teaching network. At the crossroads of issues common to the fields of French as a second language and sociolinguistics, it will focus on the conceptions of language and of alterity underlying the French language spread policy. The thesis also seeks to characterize language planning policy in a specific territory: Palestine. Those questions allow us to formulate the hypothesis of continuity in the type of relationships established through French language teaching and to put in perspective the spreading policy with an appropriation policy.

Text in Afrikaans / In this dissertation the ideology behind the debate on the position of Standard Afrikaans in the new, multilinguistic South African dispensation with eleven official languages is examined from a psycholinguistic perspective. The study concentrates on how ideology and power played and are still playing a role in the formation of the variety Standard Afrikaans. The study points out how historical and present-day philosophical, social and language-political considerations influenced the natural development of Afrikaans by advancing it in respect of status on the one hand and prejudicing it in respect of lexicon and corpus on the other hand. The mutual bond of Afrikaans and English as Germanic languages and the inherently hybrid nature of Afrikaans are highlighted. The study points out the artificial role of Eurocentrism and the ideal of "pure language" on perceptions and myths about Afrikaans, as well as the historical influence of the European heritage on Afrikaner thinking and the direct influence thereof on the appropriation of Afrikaans as a symbol and product of an exclusive, ethnical group. Classical perceptions and myths in respect of the origin of Afrikaans and the status of creole languages as opposed to so-called "pure" languages are queried. With reference to the results of the research the author reflects on the possibility of a paradigmatic shift in respect of Standard Afrikaans in its present format. Actual Afrikaans ("aktuele Afrikaans") as a basis for a generally accepted standard language is presented as a new concept. The author reflects on the internal and external desirability of a new approach to Afrikaans as the stimulus behind the survival and acceptance of Afrikaans as an intranational and international language of, inter alia, science, technology, philosophy and social interaction. Scientific arguments in respect of language change, language influencing, language diffusion and language fusion are advanced in this respect. / In hierdie proefskrif word die ideologie agter die debat oor Standaardafrikaans se posisie in die nuwe, multilinguistiese Suid-Afrikaanse bestel met elf amptelike tale vanuit 'n psigolinguistiese perspektief ondersoek. Daar word gekonsentreer op hoe ideologie en mag 'n rol in die vorming van die varieteit Standaardafrikaans gespeel het, en dit steeds doen. Daar word aangetoon hoe historiese en hedendaagse filosofiese, maatskaplike en taalpolitiese oorwegings die natuurlike ontwikkeling van Afrikaans bemvloed het deur dit onder andere enersyds statusgewys te bevoordeel en andersyds leksikaal en korpusgewys te benadeel. Die gemeenskaplike band van Afrikaans en Engels as Germaanse tale en die inherente hibridiese aard van Afrikaans word uitgelig. Daar word gewys op die kunsmatige rol wat Eurosentrisme en die strewe na "taalsuiwerheid" in opvattinge en mites oor Afrikaans gehad het, asook op die historiese invloed van die Europese erfenis op Afrikanerdenke en die indirekte invloed daarvan op die toe-eiening van Afrikaans as simbool en produk van 'n eksklusiewe, etniese groepering. Klassieke opvattinge en mites oor die ontstaan van Afrikaans en die status van kreoolse tale vergeleke met sogenaamde "suiwer" tale word bevraagteken. Na aanleiding van navorsingsresultate word daar besin oor 'n moontlike paradigmaverskuiwing ten opsigte van Standaardafrikaans in die huidige gedaante daarvan. Aktuele Afrikaans as 'n basis vir 'n algemeen aanvaarbare standaardtaal word as nu we konsep aangebied. Daar word besin oor die inteme en eksteme wenslikheid van 'n nuwe benadering tot Afrikaans as die stukrag vir die voortbestaan en aanvaarding .van Afrikaans as 'n intranasionale en intemasionale taal van, onder andere, die wetenskap, tegnologie, filosofie en sosiale omgang. Hiervoor word wetenskaplike argumente. / Afrikaans / D.Lit. et Phil.(Afrikaans)

This study investigates the role of the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus (EECMY) in the development of the Oromo language. The main aim of the study is to provide an account of the contribution of this particular church to the maintenance and development of Oromo, which is spoken by the largest speech community in Ethiopia. The study draws on theoretical and methodological frameworks from the field of language planning and development. The main source of data was interviews and focus group discussions conducted with church leaders at different organisational levels and other members of the church community. In addition, documents found in the church archives were analysed. The findings indicate that a number of church activities have contributed to the maintenance and development of the language. These activities include translation and transliteration work of the Bible and other religious literature, literacy and educational programmes, media work as well as use of Oromo in the liturgy and church services. This study also examined the obstacles that hindered the development of Oromo. The main obstacle was the conflict within the EECMY that arose in 1995 over the use of the language. The study unearths the roots of the controversy through a brief historical examination of the church’s attempts to develop the language, despite opposition from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and earlier regimes, which proscribed the use of the vernacular languages in Ethiopia. Thereafter it focuses on the internal conflict after the change to a democratic government when the situation in Ethiopia became more favourable towards use of vernacular languages. It identifies the causes of the conflict, the way in which it was resolved and the effects which it had on the development of the language. Recommendations are made for further research and some suggestions are given regarding ways to promote the future development of the Oromo language. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

In 2009, of the 68,129 learners who wrote Matric, only 34,731 learners passed. In 2010, there was an increase in the provincial pass rate causing much excitement across the board. The reality was that of the 64,090 learners who wrote, only 37,345 learners passed. In 2010, a result below 50% was recorded for Mathematics and Physical Science nationally (DBE; 2011). Despite efforts by the Education Department to support MSTE; establishing Mathematics and Science schools, NGOs and HEIs giving extra Mathematics and Science support to students and teachers, the offering of Saturday classes and incubation camps, we still get minimal return on investment. This thesis analyses these results against the backdrop of language planning theory, particularly language-in-education policies, pre and post-apartheid. The correlation between language medium and academic performance in language (LoLT) and Mathematics of Grade 12 learners is explored. Worldwide the issue of low achievement in Mathematics by ESL students is of great concern (Cuevas, 1984). The 2004 Systemic Evaluation sample of learners was in Grade 6 then; in 2010 they wrote Grade 12. The purpose of the systemic evaluation was to provide an insight into the levels of learner performance in Maths, Natural Science and LoLT in Grade 6 (IPSER, 2006). A major finding of the IPSER was that language was an important factor related to learner achievement. A major disparity was observed in this research, that although the Eastern Cape performed below the national average in the three subjects evaluated, the learners for whom LoLT was the same as their home language obtained scores that were significantly higher than those whose home language was different from the LoLT. The provincial average for Mathematics was 23.40% compared to the national average of 27.80%. For LoLT the province scored 30.16 against the national score of 38.03%. Of interest in this study is a juxtaposition of the Matric results of this same group of learners in 2010 and see whether issues that came up then are still significant in mitigating achievement in Mathematics and Language (LoLT). Some research studies have been conducted in South Africa (Adler, 1998; Setati, 1996-2002; Moloi, 2006) identifying the vital role language plays in learning Mathematics, especially for English L2 learners. Building on research and findings of academics such as the late Alexander, Ramani, Joseph, Hendricks, Heugh, Dalvit, Webb and Murray, this thesis suggests that a mother-tongue-based-bilingual approach to education should be adopted as a matter of urgency

En matière de politique linguistique et éducative, l’Algérie a été confrontée à des problèmes de choix d’orientation. D’une part, le système éducatif s’est trouvé face à des différents problèmes d’ordre politique et idéologique et d’autre part, les différentes communautés cherchaient à s’affirmer dans une société favorable aux échanges internationaux et hostile à certaines pratiques réductrices menaçant les langues, les cultures tout en induisant de nouveaux comportements sociaux. Pour rendre compte de ses problèmes, deux questions ont été posées : « comment les gouvernements successifs ont-ils géré la diversité des langues dans le système éducatif ? Quelles étaient leurs idéologies »? Pour répondre à ces questions, un état des lieux du paysage linguistique dans et en dehors du système éducatif, notamment sous l’impulsion des travaux du conseil de l’Europe, a été élaboré. Pour cerner l’opinion publique, une étude quantitative réalisée par nos soins met l’accent sur les attitudes et les représentations sociales qu’ont les personnes interrogées en vers le plurilinguisme. Ceci permettra d’entrevoir les perspectives réelles et concrètes pour une éducation plurilingue pluriculturelle dans le futur. / In the subject of politic linguistic and educational, the Algeria was confronted with the problems of orientation choices. With one part, the educational system was found to face different political and ideological problems and with other side, the different communities were searched to assert themselves in a favorable international trade company and hostile to certain practices that reduce threatening to languages, cultures while inducing new social behaviors. To account for its problems, two questions were asked: “How the successive governments have managed the diversity of languages in the educational system? What were their ideologies?” To answer these questions an overview of the linguistic landscape within and outside the educational system, notably under the impetus of the work of the Europe council has been developed. To identify the public opinion, a quantitative study conducted by us focuses on attitudes and the social representations that respondents in multilingualism. This will allow a glimpse of the real and concrete perspective for a multicultural multilingual education in the future.