The objective of this dissertation was to study walking behaviors of pedestrian groups involving individuals with disabilities. To this end, large scale controlled walking experiments were conducted at Utah State University (USU) to examine walking behaviors in various walking facility types, such as passageway, right angle, oblique angle, queuing area, bottleneck, and stairs. Walking experiments were conducted over four days involving participants with and without disabilities. Automated video identification and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect revealed and stated walking data. This study provided statistical analysis and models to study three different aspects of operational walking behaviors. Firstly, walking speed was examined as one of the most important behavioral variables. The differences in crowd walking speeds were carefully noted in analyzing the effects of adding individuals with disabilities and the impacts of different indoor walking facilities. Results showed that the presence of individuals with disabilities in a crowd significantly reduces the overall crowd speed. Statistical analysis also provided to compare walking speeds of pedestrian groups involving individuals with disabilities in different walking environments. Secondly, the dissertation proposed a framework to study the interactions of different pedestrian groups. Specifically, a mixed time headway distribution model was used to examine the time headway between followers and different leader types. In addition, the implications of interaction behaviors were studied based on the capacity of the queuing area behind the doorway. Results revealed that: (1) individuals with disabilities had significant effects on capacity reduction; (2) individuals with visual impairments and non-motorized ambulatory devices had the minimum capacity reduction effects in queuing area; and (2) individuals with motorized wheelchairs and individuals with mobility canes had the maximum capacity reduction effects in queuing area. Lastly, this study explored how a heterogeneous mix of pedestrians (including individuals with disabilities) perceive and evaluate operational performance of walking facilities. Both trajectory and survey data sources were used, and an ordered statistical approach was applied to analyze pedestrian perceptions. Results indicated that individuals with disabilities were less tolerant of extreme congested environments. Furthermore, analysis showed that the Level of Service (LOS) criteria provided in HCM does not follow the actual perceptions.

Roughness is an important indicator of pavement riding comfort and safety. It is a condition indicator that should be carefully considered when evaluating primary pavements. At the same time, the use of roughness measurements plays a critical role in the pavement management system. There are many devices used for roughness evaluation. The major tools used for road roughness quantify are the road profilers. In the thesis research, in order to obtain useful pavement surface condition data for pavement evaluation, two direct type road roughness evaluation systems were developed with the combination of modern sensor technology and computer technology. The thesis will focus on the development of the direct type profiler systems, including the improvement of the hardware design, the new direct type road roughness-measuring system using different method, the software development, which makes it more functional. In order to evaluate the accuracy and correction of the direct type profiler system, different roughness devices (including FDOT High-Speed laser profiler, FACE Dipstick and direct type I profiler) were operated in 4 calibration sites. The research focused on several performance measures, such as correlativity, repeatability. IRI and RN results from these devices were analyzed to evaluate the correlativity between these devices. After verified that direct type I profiler has good repeatability and correlation with FDOT High-Speed laser profiler, FACE Dipstick, 10 calibration sites data in Tampa were collected using direct type I profiler and direct type II profiler. The repeatability and correlation analysis between the two profilers were performed. From field experiments and data analysis, it shows: 1.Direct type I profiler showed satisfactory repeatability performances; 2.Direct type I profiler has good RN correlations High-Speed laser profiler; 3.Direct type I profiler has good correlations with Dipstick, High-Speed laser profiler in terms of IRI 4.Direct type II profiler does not has good correlation with direct type I profiler; the performance needs to be improved. Except for these conclusions, it is also found that the High-Speed profiler can be operated at different speeds with little differences in RN values, the sampling rate did show impact on RN value.

Os deslocamentos a pé são parte da história da cidade. Antes do advento dos transportes, o andar era o meio natural de se deslocar dentro dos assentamentos urbanos. Posteriormente, com a expansão urbana e a separação de funções, os transportes sobre trilhos e rodas assimilaram parte dos deslocamentos cotidianos e ajudaram a moldar um ambiente urbano muitas vezes hostil aos pedestres. Mesmo assim, o andar é, atualmente, um dos modais mais importantes no dia a dia das grandes cidades, seja em trajetos feitos exclusivamente a pé, seja como parte de trajetos intermodais. O objetivo desta pesquisa é investigar o andar a pé dentro de duas perspectivas: a perspectiva da mobilidade e a perspectiva estética - a da fruição da cidade - analisando a relação entre o ambiente construído e a experiência individual cotidiana dos pedestres. Para isso, a pesquisa busca na história das cidades ocidentais elementos que expliquem as grandes transformações do ato de andar a pé, até chegar a São Paulo, nosso estudo de caso. Em São Paulo, o acompanhamento de processos históricos e de momentos emblemáticos permitiu explicar parte do paradoxo do andar a pé na cidade: apesar de as viagens a pé serem o meio mais usado de deslocamento, as condições urbanas apresentam um quadro bastante desafiador para o pedestre - infraestrutura de caminhabilidade pouco adequada ou inexistente, travessias arriscadas e situação de insegurança na relação com os veículos motorizados. Metodologicamente, a investigação histórica é complementada por uma pesquisa qualitativa, realizada para a tese, com uma amostra de pedestres que se deslocam cotidianamente a pé por São Paulo. A técnica de discussões em grupo, conduzidas em 2018, permitiu que fossem aprofundadas as motivações, os problemas e os prazeres de quem anda a pé na cidade. Os resultados mostram que a experiência do pedestre permite materializar e entender o impacto de planos, decisões e processos implementados no passado sobre a caminhabilidade em São Paulo. Adicionalmente, foi possível constatar que, mesmo em situações adversas, existe um componente muito presente de fruição da cidade inerente ao andar a pé, manifestado no prazer sensorial do caminhar, na constatação de que andar permite \"viver a cidade\" e ainda as pequenas surpresas- encontros, descobertas e lugares inesperados. Com base nas observações e na pesquisa, o trabalho termina com a sugestão da incorporação do ponto de vista do pedestre na prática do planejamento urbano, como uma disciplina que pode agregar a importância da pequena escala aos planos urbanísticos. / Walking is an intrinsic part of the history of cities. Before the introduction of mass transport, walking was the natural means of accessing different parts of urban settlements. Later on, with the urban sprawl and the separation of functions, rail and road transports absorbed part of the daily commutes and helped to mold an urban environment which is very often hostile to pedestrians. Nonetheless, in present days, walking is still one of the most important modes of commuting inside cities, either associated with another mean, or as a standalone.The objective of this research is to investigate walking from two perspectives: the perspective of mobility and the perspective of aesthetics - the enjoyment of the city - analyzing the relation between the built environment and the personal daily experience of persons on foot. In order to reach that goal, the research selects elements in the history of western cities which can explain the transformations in the act of walking. In São Paulo, our case study, there exists a clear paradox: despite the fact that walking is the most important means of transportation, the urban settings depict a very challenging situation for the pedestrian - inadequate or nonexistent sidewalks, risky crossings and vulnerable conditions in the face of motor vehicles. Methodologically, the historical investigation is complemented by a qualitative research conducted specifically for this thesis, with a sample of pedestrians who walk regularly in their daily affairs. The group discussions, which took place in 2018, have brought relevant information to understand the motivations, problems and pleasures of those who walk in São Paulo. The results show that the pedestrian experiences can help us to assess the impact that plans, decisions and processes which took place decades ago have had on the walkability in São Paulo. They also allow us to verify that, even in adverse situations, a sense of enjoyment is often present while walking, and it is expressed not only in the very pleasure of taking a walk but, also in the realization that through it one can \"experience the city\" and the hidden surprises it can reveal - unexpected encounters, findings, and places.The observations and the research initiated a series of suggestions on how to incorporate the pedestrian\'s point of view in the practice of urban planning, as a means to integrate the importance of the human scale to urban plans.

The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate the importance of walking to public health. The first part is characterized by epidemiological research. First, a typology for the measurement of walking is developed. A systematic review is conducted of observational studies to determine the health benefits of walking in its own right. Studies consistently confirm that 30 minutes walking on most days of the week is sufficient to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and non-communicable disease risk. Then, a series of epidemiological analyses describes the prevalence and correlates of walking, using multiple health and non-health surveillance data sets. Surveillance data indicate that the prevalence of walking at the above recommended levels is low across all domains. Between 1991 and 2001 an increase in walking occurred, and was the main contributor to reductions in leisure time physical inactivity; however, the proportion of the population who achieved the recommended amount of physical activity by walking did not change in leisure and transport domains. The next part of the thesis is characterized by health promotion research examining the impact of three population-based approaches to increasing walking among Australian adults. The first was an evaluation of a conversion of rail to trail, as an environmental change intervention; the second was a mass media campaign promoting walking to work, and the third was a targeted print media walking program. Providing environmental supports with minimal promotion had no effect on walking. A nation-wide mass media campaign promoting walking to work increased walking and other moderate intensity physical activity, but process evaluation indicated other promotional efforts contributed as well. The targeted print media randomised trial had the greatest effect on walking, but the increases were not greater than spontaneous change in the control. Increases in total physical activity were achieved only when the intervention was supplemented by the use of a pedometer. The expectation that broader approaches to the promotion of walking will bring about changes at the population level, were not corroborated by these case studies. There is a need for enhancement of walking-specific interventions to influence total PA at the population levels.

Doctor of Philosophy / In this thesis, three experiments were conducted to monitor: (i) muscle oxygenation and electromyographic activity of the biceps brachii after exercise-induced muscle damage (ii) muscle oxygenation after downhill walking-induced muscle damage, and, (iii) muscle oxygenation following a bout of vigorous concentric exercise. Maximal eccentric exercise (EE) of biceps brachii resulted in significantly increased mean resting oxygen saturation and decreased deoxyhaemoglobin. During isometric contractions at 50% and 80% of subjects’ maximum voluntary torque (MVT), oxygen desaturation and resaturation kinetics and volume were significantly decreased after EE, and these declines were significantly prevalent over the following 6 days. Additionally, a significant shift in median frequency intercept (measured by electromyography; EMG) towards lower frequencies was observed during isometric contractions at both 50% and 80% MVT after EE in the exercised arm. After an exhaustive session of downhill walking, another form of EE, resting total haemoglobin and oxyhaemoglobin decreased. Furthermore, during isometric contractions at 30%, 50% and 80% of MVT, prolonged and significant increases were observed in oxygen desaturation and resaturation kinetics and volumes after ambulatory EE. In contrast to the two EE experiments, concentric contractions did not evoke any prolonged changes in muscle oxygenation. Collectively, the findings of this thesis revealed significant and prolonged changes in muscle oxygenation at rest and during exercise, following sessions of strenuous eccentric exercise. Although not clear, the possible mechanism responsible for the changes in muscle oxygenation after EE could be increased resting muscle oxygen utilization due to probable muscle damage and a subsequent requirement of energy demanding repair processes. Concentric exercise resulted in fatigue, but it did not affect muscle oxygenation. Although a prolonged reduction in EMG median frequency intercept was observed after EE, this was not closely time-associated with the biochemical, anthropometric or functional markers of muscle damage.

Judging time-to-contact with a target is an important criterion for avoiding harm in everyday walking and running tasks, and maximizing performance in high-velocity sporting tasks. The information-based regulation of step length and duration during target-directed locomotion was examined in relation to gait mode, approach velocity, target task, expertise, and sporting performance during a series of four experiments. The first three experiments examined novice performers (Each n=12, 6 males, 6 females), whilst the last experiment examined expert gymnasts (n=5). Two reference strips with alternating 50cm black and white intervals were placed on either side of the approach strip for all of the experiments. One 50Hz-panning video camera filmed the approach from an elevated position. In Experiment 4, two stationary 250Hz cameras filmed the post-flight performance of the gymnastic vaults and, in addition, two qualified judges provided a performance score for each vaulting trial. The panning video footage in each experiment was digitized to deduce the gait characteristics. In Experiment 4, the high-speed video footage was analyzed three-dimensionally to obtain the performance measures such as post-flight height. The utilization of visual stimulus in target-directed locomotion is affected by the observer's state of motion as characterized by the mode of locomotion and also often the speed of locomotion. In addition, experience plays an important role in the capacity of the observer to utilize visual stimulus to control the muscular action of locomotion when either maintaining or adjusting the step mechanics. The characteristics of the terrain and the target also affect the observer's movement. Visual regulation of step length decreases at higher approach speeds in novice performers, where as expert performers are capable of increasing visual regulation at higher approach speeds. Conservatism in final foot placement by female participants accounts for the observed increase in distance from the critical boundary of the obstacle relative to toe placement. Behavioural effects of gender thus affect the control of final foot placement in obstacle-directed locomotion. The visual control of braking in target-directed locomotion is described by a tau-dot of-0.54. When tau-dot is below -0.54 a hard collision with the obstacle will occur, however, when tau-dot is above -0.54, a soft collision with the target will occur. It is suggested that the tau-dot margin defining the control of braking reveals the braking capacity of the system. In the target-directed locomotion examined a tau-dot greater than -0.70 would possibly exceed the braking capacity of the system, thus, leading to injury if performed. The approach towards the take-off board and vaulting horse in gymnastics is an example of target-directed locomotion in sport. Increased visual regulation of the timing and length of each step is a requirement for a fast running approach, a fundamental building block for the execution of complex vaults in gymnastics. The successful performance of complex vaults in gymnastics leads towards a higher judge's score. Future research suggestions include an investigation of visual regulation of step length in curved target-directed locomotion.

<p>Generating and stabilizing periodic motions in nonlinear systems is a challenging task. In the control system community this topic is also known as limit cycle control. In recent years a framework known as Virtual Holonomic Constraints (VHC) has been developed as one of the solutions to this problem. The aim of this thesis is to give an insight into this approach and its practical application.</p><p>The contribution of this work is primarily the experimental validation of the theory. A step by step procedure of this methodology is given for motion planning, as well as for controller design. Three particular setups were chosen for experiments: the inertia wheel pendulum, the Furuta pendulum and the two-link planar pendulum. These under-actuated mechanical systems are well known benchmarking setups for testing advanced control design methods.</p><p>Further application is intended for cases such as biped robot walking/running, human and animal locomotion analysis, etc.</p>

<p>Syftet med denna uppsats var att undersöka vilka faktorer som påverkar hur förvärvsarbetande människor i Gävle använder sig av bil och aktiv transport när de transporterar sig till destinationer inom staden. Tio personer, fem butiksbiträden och fem lärare, intervjuades angående deras transportvanor och resonemang kring valet av transportsätt.Resultatet visade att aktiv transport var det vanligaste transportsättet till arbete, träning och butiker i centrum medan bilen var det vanligaste transportsättet till mataffären och destinationer på längre avstånd från hemmet. Avståndet till destinationen, tiden det tar att transportera sig, transport av eventuella varor, bekvämlighet, intresse av motion och rekreation, årstid, väder samt synen på ekonomi och miljö var faktorer som påverkade om deltagarna valde att transportera sig med bil eller aktiv transport. Definitionen på de olika faktorerna varierade mellan deltagarna, vilket kan tyda på att det är den personliga uppfattningen om de olika faktorerna som avgör vilket transportsätt som väljs. Det framkom ingen märkbar skillnad i resvanor mellan deltagare med olika utbildning och arbete.</p>

<p>Fall orsakar de allra flesta höftfrakturerna och en tredjedel av alla över 65 år i Sverige faller varje år. En persons self-efficacy kan påverka hur aktiv personen vågar vara efter en höftfraktur vilket torde påverka den postoperativa rehabiliteringen. <strong>Syfte:</strong> Syftet var att vid hemgång från ortopedavdelning efter operation för höftfraktur undersöka om fallrelaterade self-efficacy skiljer sig i olika äldre åldersgrupper samt samband mellan fallrelaterad self-efficacy, gångförmågan och antalet vårddagar. <strong>Metod:</strong> Medelåldern i studien var 78 år. 14 personer ingick i studien. 6 av personerna tillhörde gruppen äldre/äldre (≥80 år) och resterande tillhörde gruppen yngre/äldre (65-79 år). Personerna som ingick hade ingen till mild kognitiv nedsättning. Frågeformuläret Falls-efficacy scale svenska versionen (FES(S)) även gångtestet Timed Up and Go användes. <strong>Resultat:</strong> Studien kunde inte påvisa några statistiskt signifikanta skillnader i fallrelaterad self-efficacy mellan yngre/äldre och äldre/äldre på FES(S) och dess delskalor. De äldre/äldre skattade dock sin fallrelaterade self-efficacy högre än yngre/äldre. Sambandet mellan FES(S) delskala för personliga aktiviteter i dagliga livet (PADL) och TUG i gruppen äldre/äldre var statistiskt signifikant. Sambanden mellan antalet vårddagar och resultaten på FES(S) var lågt till måttligt. <strong>Konklusion:</strong> Att äldre/äldre skattar högre på FES(S) och har ett starkt samband med resultaten på TUG är något som avdelningar skulle kunna ta hänsyn till i sin rehabilitering genom att träna vardagsaktiviteter för att tillägna sig ökad förståelse av vad de möts av vid hemgång.</p>

<p>The general aim of this work was to evaluate the outcome of specialised stroke rehabilitation and to examine the relation between both subjectively perceived and objectively assessed balance and impairments and some activity limitations. A further, integrated aim was to establish some psychometric properties and the usability of a newly developed Falls-Efficacy Scale, Swedish version (FES(S)) in stroke rehabilitation.</p><p>Seventy-three patients younger than 70 years of age with a first stroke and reduced walking ability were randomised into an intervention group (walking on a treadmill with body weight support) and a control group (walking on the ground). Time points of assessment were: on admission for rehabilitation, at discharge and 10 months after stroke. Walking training on a treadmill with body weight support and walking training on the ground were found to be equally effective in the early rehabilitation. The patients in both groups improved their walking velocity, motor function, balance, self-efficacy and ADL performance.</p><p>In a geriatric sample of 37 stroke patients examined at similar time points, significant improvements in self-efficacy, motor function, balance, ambulation and ADL occurred from admission to discharge independently of age. In comparison with observer-based balance measures, FES(S) at discharge was the most powerful predictor of ADL performance 10 months after onset of stroke.</p><p>In 30 patients with stable stroke, the overall test-retest reliability of FES(S) was found to be adequate. The internal consistency confirmed that FES(S) has an adequate homogeneity.</p><p>In a subsample of 62 patients from the original sample and in the geriatric sample, FES(S) correlated significantly with Berg’s balance scale, the Fugl-Meyer balance scale, with motor function and with gait performance. In the relatively younger group ADL (measured by the Functional Independence Measurement) correlated significantly with FES(S) on admission and at 10 months follow-up, while at discharge none of the FES(S) measures correlated significantly with ADL. In this subsample effect size statistics for detecting changes in FES(S) demonstrated very acceptable responsiveness of this scale during the early treatment period and during the total observation period</p><p>In the light of these findings assessment and treatment of self-efficacy seems relevant in stroke rehabilitation. </p>