This study addresses chivalric writing and court culture during the reign of Juan II of Castile and aims to examine the changing chivalric ideal in Castile during this turbulent period of Castilian history. My thesis argues that political crisis in Castile led to a corresponding crisis in Castilian chivalry as commentators at the royal court tried to correct the failings of the Castilian nobility. The study is based around the work of Alonso de Cartagena, an esteemed diplomat, translator and the Bishop of Burgos in the latter years of Juan II’s reign. Like many of his contemporaries, Cartagena lamented Castile’s descent into civil war and felt compelled to take up his pen in response to the drawn swords of the Castilian nobility. His Doctrinal de los caualleros, produced in 1444 at the height of the civil war, was a highly critical look at chivalry and nobility in the Kingdom of Castile. Cartagena’s view of the chivalric ideal was one which was fundamentally shaped by the civil war. This study seeks to set his ideas in their broader context and argues that they should be seen as part of a wider Castilian debate on chivalry and nobility. This debate involved a number of Cartagena’s contemporaries including, Diego de Valera, Juan Rodríguez del Padrón, Rodrigo Sánchez de Arévalo and the Marquis of Santillana Íñigo López de Mendoza. Cartagena, along with a number of these authors, challenged traditional views on chivalry and nobility and instead argued for a view of knighthood grounded in individual good conduct and personal worth, in place of lineage and inherited status. This study argues that the civil war in Castile paved the way for the development of a rich literature of chivalric reform and facilitated the development of the sort of knightly criticism seen elsewhere in Europe in the later Middle Ages. However, rather than simply being a theoretical discussion, the civil war and unique social pressures on the Iberian Peninsula made the debate highly relevant. Chivalry became a vehicle for political criticism and reform. For Cartagena and his contemporaries, chivalric writing offered a means of ending the civil war by addressing what they saw as endemic issues with the rebellious Castilian nobility. My work has thus argued for a view of chivalry as a changing and developing body of thought shaped by the intellectual and political context in which it developed. Chivalry was, in essence, a code of military ethics governing conduct on and off the battlefield. However, whilst its basic tenants of virtue, honour, prowess at arms and piety were broadly similar across Europe, how they were understood differed greatly. Rather than seeking an all-encompassing definition, I have argued that the focus should fall on the differences and complexities within chivalric thought.

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[EN] The origins of social housing in the Region of Murcia. 1900-1936. The initiatives of Working-class Houses in Cartagena and Murcia. At the last decades of the nineteenth century, the problem of working-class houses was a pressing issue in the Region of Murcia. Even with a low industrialization index and an economy fully immersed in a modernization process, the 'social matter', as it was called in the reformist circles, widely spread in a clear way and its consequences mobilised several social agents. From the first overcrowding problems in the mining settlements, to the latest frustrated attempts of cooperative initiatives before Spanish Civil War, the different solutions left a mark, in both architectural and urban scopes, in the main cities of the region. The architecture essays of this period in the province just outline the topic of working-class dwellings, and really go in depth in public or monumental topics from historical or stylistic points of view. This dissertation tackles how the working-class house problem arose in the Region of Murcia. It will also deal with the different solving proposals and its evolution during the aforementioned period, from the working-class houses to the initiatives of 'Casas Baratas' considered as the beginning of subsidised social housing in Spain. Chapters II and III, following the methodological introduction, are mainly dedicated to a focused contextualisation. The first one refers to the origin of the housing problem in Europe and Spain, from its denunciation to the diverse variety of offered solutions, and it also presents a view of the debate about dwelling and several urban concepts arisen in that moment. The following chapter shows different aspects such as economic, social, demographic or urban issues that help us understand the global scene, first at a regional level and particularized then to Murcia and Cartagena. In the fourth chapter, a summary of social housing laws and acts is showed, at both national and local ranges, from the background on social politics in the middle of nineteenth century up to 1935. The impact of the legal scope in the initiatives of 'Casas Baratas' is also dealt in this chapter. In addition, an abstract of the required procedures to become a beneficiary of state subsidies is added in order to get a better understanding of the next chapters. Chapters V and VI include the main interventions of working-class houses and 'casas baratas' respectively. The chapter V presents a variety of the main solutions found about non-subsidised working-class interventions, organised by topics. Chapter VI, in turn, covers only the 'Casas Baratas' initiatives that began the administrative procedures and provides the details of their development, from the purchase of the plot and projects to the legal procedures and their present conditions. After the descriptions of the solving proposals, it is necessary to do a graphic analysis in order to provide a general overview. Three different methods have been applied to attain this goal: a drawing catalogue of the main interventions, a statistic of the building licenses during this period and finally, a graphic timeline. The last chapter is devoted to the study of three low-density interventions of social housing in Rome within the same period of time. They may offer an idea on how this problem was addressed in a city lacking of a great industrial area. Finally, the conclusions of this dissertation consider the global set of the shown experiences and the social and economic issues in order to establish the guidelines in the origin and development of social housing in the region of Murcia. / [ES] Los orígenes de la vivienda social en la Región de Murcia. 1900-1936. Las iniciativas de Casas Baratas en Cartagena y Murcia. El problema de la habitación obrera a finales del siglo XIX no fue una cuestión ajena en la Región de Murcia. Aún contando con un escaso índice de industrialización y una economía en pleno proceso de modernización, la 'cuestión social' como se denominaría en los ambientes reformistas, se dejó sentir de una manera patente y sus consecuencias movilizaron a numerosos agentes sociales. Desde los primeros problemas de hacinamiento en las poblaciones mineras durante el último cuarto del siglo XIX, hasta los últimos intentos frustrados de iniciativas cooperativistas anteriores a la Guerra Civil, las diferentes propuestas de solución dejaron su huella tanto a nivel arquitectónico como urbano, en las principales ciudades de la región. Los estudios dedicados a la arquitectura de este periodo en la provincia esbozan ligeramente el tema de la residencia obrera, para centrarse en temas del ámbito público o monumental enfocados desde puntos de vista históricos y estilísticos. Este trabajo aborda cómo se gestó el problema de la habitación de las clases modestas en la Región de Murcia, las diferentes propuestas de solución, así como la evolución durante el periodo señalado, desde la vivienda obrera hasta las iniciativas de casas baratas, acogidas a los beneficios de la legislación y consideradas el origen de la vivienda social subvencionada en España. Los capítulos II y III, que siguen a la introducción metodológica, están dedicados fundamentalmente a una contextualización enfocada. El segundo hace referencia al origen del problema de la vivienda en Europa y en España, desde su denuncia hasta los diferentes tipos de soluciones adoptadas, así como una visión del debate surgido en torno a la habitación y ciertos conceptos urbanísticos vigentes durante el periodo. El tercer capítulo expone los diferentes aspectos económicos, sociales, demográficos y urbanísticos que ayudarán a comprender el escenario, tratados de un modo más general a nivel regional y particularizados después para Murcia y Cartagena. En el capítulo IV se realiza un compendio de la legislación en materia de vivienda social a nivel estatal y municipal, desde los antecedentes en política social a mediados del siglo XIX hasta 1935, y su incidencia en las iniciativas de vivienda obrera de nuestro ámbito de estudio. Se completa con un resumen del procedimiento administrativo que se requería para poder ser beneficiario de las subvenciones estatales. Los siguientes capítulos V y VI contienen las principales actuaciones de vivienda obrera y casas baratas respectivamente. El quinto organiza en grupos temáticos una muestra de las principales realizaciones encontradas en materia de vivienda obrera sin subvencionar, mientras que el sexto comprende únicamente las iniciativas de casas baratas que incoaron expediente y detalla sus diferentes aspectos, desde la adquisición de terrenos y el proyecto hasta la tramitación administrativa o su estado actual. Tras la exposición de las propuestas se hace necesario un análisis gráfico de las mismas que nos permita obtener una visión de conjunto. Esto se lleva a cabo mediante la elaboración de unas fichas de las actuaciones, una estadística de licencias de obra del periodo y un cronograma. Todos ellos comentados en el capítulo VII y aportados en los anexos. Antes de finalizar se incorpora un capítulo dedicado a analizar tres intervenciones de vivienda social de baja densidad en Roma, dentro del mismo marco temporal y que pueden aportar una idea de cómo se afrontó el problema en una ciudad carente también de un cinturón industrial importante. Las conclusiones de esta Tesis Doctoral consideran el conjunto de experiencias expuestas y los diferentes aspectos económicos, sociales, técnicos y administrativos, a fin de establecer las pautas en la generaci / [CAT] El problema de l'habitació obrera a la darreria del segle XIX no va ser una qüestió aliena a la regió de Múrcia. Tot i que tenia un escàs índex d'industrialització i una economia en ple procés de modernització, la qüestió social, com es denominaria en els ambients reformistes, es va deixar sentir d'una manera palesa, i les seues conseqüències van mobilitzar nombrosos agents socials. Des dels primers problemes de sobreocupació a les poblacions mineres durant l'últim quart del segle XIX, fins als últims intents frustrats d'iniciatives cooperativistes anteriors a la Guerra Civil, les diverses propostes de solució van deixar petjada, tant en l'àmbit arquitectònic com urbà, a les principals ciutats de la regió. Els estudis dedicats a l'arquitectura d'aquest període a la província esbossen lleugerament el tema de la residència obrera, per a centrar-se en temes de l'àmbit públic o monumental enfocats des de punts de vista històrics i estilístics. Aquest treball aborda com es va gestar el problema de l'habitació de les classes modestes a la regió de Múrcia, les diverses propostes de solució, i també l'evolució durant el període assenyalat, des de l'habitatge obrer fins a les iniciatives de cases barates, acollides als beneficis de la legislació i considerades l'origen de l'habitatge social subvencionat a Espanya. Els capítols II i III, que segueixen la introducció metodològica, estan dedicats fonamentalment a una contextualització enfocada. El primer fa referència a l'origen del problema de l'habitatge a Europa i a Espanya, des de la denúncia d'aquest problema fins als diversos tipus de solucions adoptades, com també una visió del debat sorgit entorn de l'habitació i certs conceptes urbanístics vigents durant el període. El següent capítol exposa els aspectes econòmics, socials, demogràfics i urbanístics que ajudaran a comprendre l'escenari, tractats d'una manera més general a escala regional, i particularitzats després per a les ciutats de Múrcia i Cartagena. En el capítol IV es du a terme un compendi de la legislació en matèria d'habitatge social a escala estatal i municipal, des dels antecedents en política social a mitjan segle XIX fins a 1935, i la seua incidència en les iniciatives d'habitatge obrer del nostre àmbit d'estudi. Es completa amb un resum del procediment administratiu que es requeria per a poder ser beneficiari de les subvencions estatals. Els següents capítols V i VI contenen les principals actuacions d'habitatge obrer i cases barates, respectivament. El capítol V organitza en grups temàtics una mostra de les principals realitzacions trobades en matèria d'habitatge obrer sense subvencionar, mentre que el següent comprèn únicament les iniciatives de cases barates que van incoar expedient i en detalla els diversos aspectes, des de l'adquisició de terrenys i el projecte fins a la tramitació administrativa o l'estat actual. Després de l'exposició i la descripció de les propostes, se'n fa necessària una anàlisi gràfica que ens ajude a obtenir una visió de conjunt. Aquesta anàlisi es duu a terme per mitjà de l'elaboració d'unes fitxes de les actuacions, una estadística de llicències d'obra del període i un cronograma. Tots ells comentats en el capítol VII i aportats en els annexos. Abans d'acabar, s'hi incorpora un capítol dedicat a analitzar tres intervencions d'habitatge social de baixa densitat a Roma, dins del mateix marc temporal, que poden aportar una idea de com es va afrontar el problema en una ciutat que tampoc no tenia un cinturó industrial important. La conclusió d'aquesta tesi doctoral considera de manera global tant el conjunt d'experiències exposades com els aspectes del context econòmic i social, per a tractar d'establir les pautes en la generació i el desenvolupament de l'habitatge social a la Regió de Múrcia. / Ródenas López, MA. (2016). LOS ORIGENES DE LA VIVIENDA SOCIAL EN LA REGIÓN DE MURCIA. 1900-1936. LAS INICIATIVAS DE CASAS BARATAS EN CARTAGENA Y MURCIA [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/64085 / TESIS

Displacements caused by climate-related events have been on the rise throughout the last decades. The effects of climate change in displacement of people is still a field in construction. The people displaced due to the environment were first denominated as "climate refugees" or "environmental refugees". This thesis aims to examine the protection of the so-called "climate refugee" under international law. The main issue of the thesis relies on the fact that there is no general agreement on the refugee status of the "climate refugees". The refugee regime has the 1951 Convention as its cornerstone, and as such, the analysis of the Convention is crucial to comprehend who can be a refugee. The 1951 Convention is not the only legal instrument in the refugee regime. There are other legal documents capable of guaranteeing protection for refugees. This thesis discusses two other relevant legal instruments dealing with refugee protection: the OAU Convention and the Cartagena Declaration. It analyzes the refugee definitions and the main features of these specific documents. The three documents will be used to establish what sort of protection the "climate refugees" are entitled to under international law. The thesis will use two judicial decisions to evaluate the hypothesis of "climate refugee" being...

Esta tesis busca determinar si la consideración del manifiesto de carga como definitivo 48 horas antes del arribo de la nave a territorio peruano por parte de la SUNAT constituye una restricción al comercio dentro del alcance de los artículos 72 y 73 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. La tesis analiza el objeto y efecto restrictivo al comercio de esta medida como resultado de la aplicación de las normas de aduanas por parte de la SUNAT. De conformidad con lo dispuesto por el Informe Nro. 089-2011-SUNAT de la SUNAT y la nueva Ley General de Aduanas, la administración aduanera del Perú ha requerido que la transmisión electrónica del manifiesto de carga se realice hasta cuarenta y ocho (48) horas antes de la llegada de la nave, siempre y cuando provenga de un puerto lejano. Asimismo, una vez vencido este plazo, dicha transmisión adquiere el carácter de definitiva. Por consiguiente, cualquier información que se añada o cualquier rectificación que se realice de la información transmitida daban lugar a que se configure una infracción que resultaba ser sancionable con la imposición de una multa. La presente tesis evalúa este criterio aplicado por la SUNAT. El Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina ha declarado que esta medida constituye un incumplimiento objetivo de la Decisión 671 de la Comunidad Andina. Sin embargo, la tesis busca hacer una contribución y analiza otras vías legales que se pueden usar para cuestionar este tipo de medida restrictiva del comercio. Una de esas vías es la necesidad de respetar el principio de libre circulación de mercancías el cual se encuentra consagrado en los artículos 72 y 73 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. El alcance del principio de libre circulación de mercancías ha sido desarrollado por el Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina a lo largo de su jurisprudencia. A su vez, este tribunal ha seguido la jurisprudencia del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea, en particular, el célebre caso 5 Dassonville. En este contexto, el Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina ha interpretado el concepto de “restricciones de todo orden” de manera amplia para incluir a cualquier medida que pueda tener el objeto o el efecto de restringir las importaciones al hacerlas más difíciles u onerosas en el comercio intrarregional. Esta tesis analiza esta jurisprudencia andina, y de manera ilustrativa, la jurisprudencia europea ha sido presentada. La tesis concluye que la medida adoptada por SUNAT, puede potencialmente restringir las importaciones de mercancías al hacerlas más difíciles y onerosas. En tal sentido, esta medida se encuentra dentro del alcance de la doctrina Dassonville desarrollada por el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea y aplicada por la Secretaría General y el Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina. / This thesis seeks to determine whether considering the cargo manifest in a definite manner 48 hours prior to the arrival of the vessel to Peruvian territory by the SUNAT constitutes a restriction on trade within the scope of Articles 72 and 73 of the Cartagena Agreement. The thesis analyzes the trade restrictive object and effect of such a measure as a result of the application of the customs rules by the SUNAT. According to the Report No. 089-2011-SUNAT of the SUNAT and the new General Customs Law, the Customs Administration of Peru required that the electronic transmission of cargo manifest be undertaken 48 hours prior to the arrival of the vessel, provided that it came from a distant port. Likewise, once the deadline expires, such a transmission is to be considered in a definite manner. Therefore, any information to be added or any rectification of the information that has been transmitted could give rise to an infringement that is punishable with a fine. This thesis assesses this criterion applied by the SUNAT. The Andean Court of Justice has declared that this measure constituted an objective infringement of the Decision 671 of the Andean Community. However, the thesis seeks to make a contribution and analyzes other legal avenues that can be employed in order to question this type of trade restrictive measure. One of these avenues is the need to respect the principle of free movement of goods that has been provided for in Articles 72 and 73 of the Cartagena Agreement. The Court of Justice of the Andean Community has developed the scope of the principle of free movement of goods in its case law. In addition, this tribunal has followed the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union, in particular, the landmark Dassonville case. In this context, the Court of Justice of the Andean Community has widely interpreted the concept of 7 “restrictions of all kinds” in order to include any measure that has the object and effect of restricting imports by making them more difficult or costly in intra community trade. This thesis analyzes this Andean case law and, in an illustrative manner, the European case law has been taken into account and presented. The thesis concludes that the measure adopted by the SUNAT can potentially restrict imports of goods by making them more difficult and costly. In this sense, this measure falls within the scope of the Dassonville doctrine that has been developed by the Court of Justice of the European Union and applied by the General Secretariat and the Court of Justice of the Andean Community.

Utilizando como fuente los libros de defunción del registro civil de Cartagena, se ha extraido una muestra aleatoria de 4040 registros (el 2'5% de todas las defunciones del período). De cada caso se han registrado los datos sociodemográficos (sexo, domicilio, edad, profesión...) que han sido puestos en relación con la causa de defunción. Para alcanzar este objetivo ha sido necesario elaborar un tesauro que permitiera una correcta ordenación y comprensión de las expresiones diagnósticas que informan sobre la causa de muerte. La tasa de mortalidad media fue del 27'5 por mil, con un alto peso de la mortalidad infantil (el 43% de las defunciones se dan en menores de 8 años), infecciosa (33'7%) y respiratoria (22'4%), si bien a lo largo del período se comprueba un desplazamiento hacia edades avanzadas y causas relacionadas con "senilidad" y accidentes vasculares; entre las causas específicas sobresale la tuberculosis (10% de las defunciones), y por su importancia relativa, el paludismo. Con el método de Louis Henry se comprueba una estacionalidad de máximos invernales y mínimos estivales. El método de Dupaquier ha permitido identificar 10 crisis de mortalidad, algunas ya documentadas con anterioridad, como la causada en 1918 y 1919 por la gripe, y en 1885 por el cólera. Esta última se prolonga con dos nuevas crisis en 1887 y 1888 Y viene precedida por una anterior en 1877; otras han sido identificadas y estudiadas en 1897, 1906, 1910 y 1928. / A random sample of 4,040 records (2.5% of all deaths in the period) was obtained from the Death Record at the Register Office in Cartagena (Murcia, Spain). Social and demographic data (sex, address, age, profession, etc) were obtained from each case and related to death cause. In order to reach this objective it was necessary to elaborate a thesaurus that allowed a correct arrangement and understanding of diagnosis terms informing on death cause. Rate of mortality was 27.5 by thousands, with a high percentage of children mortality (43% of deaths occurred below 8 years of age), infectious causes (33.7%) and respiratory diseases (22.4%). A displacement of mortality to middle aged and elderly and to causes related to senility and vascular illnesses was verified throughout the period. Tuberculosis (10% of deaths) and malaria excelled among specific causes of death. Louis Henry's method verifies the maximum rate of mortality in winter and the minimum in summer. The method of Dupaquier allowed us to identify 10 mortality crises, some previously documented -like those in 1918 and 119 by influenza and also in 1885 by cholera. The latter emerged with two new crises in 1887 and 1888, which was preceded by another in 1877. Finally, others have been identified and studied in 1897, 1906, 1910 and 1928.

La presente tesis aspira a demonstrar que, ante la afluencia masiva de personas venezolanas a territorio peruano, sobre todo en los años 2017, 2018 y 2019, el Estado peruano debería haber aplicado la Declaración de Cartagena de 1984, conforme está transcrita a su normativa interna, en la Ley N°27891 y su Reglamento. Para ello, se presenta primero el marco legal internacional y nacional del Derecho de Refugiados; para luego apreciar estadísticamente los movimientos migratorios sucesivos de más de un millón de venezolanos hacía el Perú. Investigamos, al detalle, el actuar del Estado peruano ante esta situación. Analizamos rigorosamente cada uno de los elementos constitutivos, que habrían justificado el otorgamiento del asilo, a los migrantes venezolanos, en base a la definición ampliada de refugiado, tal como está estipulada en la Declaración de Cartagena de 1984 y recogida en el literal b) del Artículo 3.- de la Ley peruana del Refugiado, Ley N°27891, y en aplicación del mecanismo de acogida grupal o prima facie. Se consideran las objeciones del Perú frente a esta constelación, para refutar sus argumentos y demostrar los beneficios que le resultarían de la aplicación de la Declaración de Cartagena de 1984 y de su propia normativa sobre refugio. Comprobamos la validez de esta afirmación, al observar la complejidad de una regularización ex post de la presencia venezolana en el Perú, a la cual finalmente, se ha visto obligado el Estado peruano. / This thesis aims to demonstrate that, given the massive influx of Venezuelan people into Peruvian territory, especially in 2017, 2018 and 2019, the Peruvian State should have applied the Cartagena Declaration of 1984, as transcribed into its internal Law No. 27891 and Regulation. For this, we first present the international and national legal framework of Refugee Law, and then statistically appreciate the successive migratory movements of more than one million Venezuelans to Peru. We investigate, in detail, the Peruvian State´s response to this situation. We rigorously analyze each of the constituent elements that would have justified the granting of asylum to Venezuelan migrants, based on the expanded definition of refugee, as stipulated in the Cartagena Declaration of 1984 and included in Article 3 (b) of the Peruvian Refugee Law, Law No. 27891, and in application of the group or prima facie reception mechanism. Peru's objections to this constellation are considered in order to refute its arguments and demonstrate the benefits that would result from the application of the 1984 Cartagena Declaration and its own internal refugee regulations. We verify the validity of this statement by observing the complexity of an ex post regularization of the Venezuelan presence in Peru, which the Peruvian State has finally been forced to undertake. / Tesis

[pt] Este trabalho apresenta a constituição histórica dos regimes de proteção aos refugiados em suas três esferas - global, regional e nacional -, assumindo sua complementariedade na consolidação da proteção aos deslocamentos forçados. Partindo de uma pressuposição construtivista, esta abordagem apresentará os marcos de proteção ao refúgio como construtos históricos fomentados dentro de interações sociais e que estão em fluxo contínuo de especificação sobre os novos carecimentos humanos. Nessa perspectiva construtivista que integra abordagens interdisciplinares para os estudos internacionais, será empregado o vocábulo regime em relação às construções de proteção, com normativas, princípios e vias procedimentais em torno da temática do refúgio. Assim, emoldurado por uma estrutura cronológica, a pesquisa começará da esfera mais ampla da Convenção de 1951, passando pela esfera Regional para culminar no marco de proteção nacional ao refugiado. Especial enfoque será dado à esfera regional na ampliação da definição de refugiado, que se concretiza na América Latina por meio da Declaração de Cartagena de 1984, a fim de superar os limites eurocêntricos da definição clássica. Tal abordagem da região está conectada ao Brasil que incorpora na lei 9.474/97 a definição clássica internacional e a definição ampliada de graves e generalizadas violações de direitos humanos de Cartagena. Traçado o caminho, esta dissertação apresenta dentro do marco do regime nacional de refúgio a resposta brasileira ao fluxo de venezuelanos por meio da Operação Acolhida. Portanto, analisaremos os eixos da gestão migratória militarizada brasileira, que ocorre com forte proeminência das Forças Armadas. A esse respeito, o trabalho destaca a simultaneidade da lógica humanitária e securitária da resposta nacional, que demonstra ambivalência entre proteger o venezuelano e proteger-se dele. / [en] This work presents a historical constitution of the refugee protection regimes, in their three spheres - global, regional, and national – assuming its complementarity in consolidating the protection to the forced displacement. Starting from a constructivist presupposition, this approach will present the refuge protection framework as historical constructs fostered within social interactions, and which are in a continuous flow of specification over the new human needs. From this constructivist perspective that integrates interdisciplinary approaches to the international studies, the word regime will be used, in relation to the constructions of protection, with norms, principles and procedural pathways, around the theme of refuge. Thus, framed by a chronological structure, this research will start from the broader sphere of the 1951 Convention, passing through the sphere Regional, to culminate in the framework of national refugee protection. Special focus will be given to the regional sphere in expanding the definition of refugee, which takes place in Latin America, through the 1984 Cartagena Declaration, to overcome the Eurocentric limits of the classic definition. This approach of the region is connected to Brazil, which incorporates in law 9.474/97 the international classical definition and the expanded definition of serious and widespread human rights violations in Cartagena. Tracing this path, this dissertation presents, within the framework of the national refugee regime, the Brazilian response to the flow of Venezuelans, through the Operation Welcome. Therefore, we will analyze the axes of this Brazilian militarized migratory management, which occurs with strong prominence of the Armed Forces. Thus, this work highlights the simultaneity of the humanitarian and security logic of this national response, which demonstrates ambivalence between protecting the Venezuelans and protecting ourselves from them.

O estabelecimento de regras, normas e padrões internacionais relacionados ao comércio de produtos geneticamente modificados é bastante complexo e envolve uma diversidade de interesses. Essa complexidade pode ser evidenciada pela demora em se definir a forma de operacionalizar o Protocolo de Cartagena sobre Biossegurança - PCB. O PCB estabelece normas e padrões para regulamentar o comércio transfronteiriço de organismos vivos modificados com o objetivo de proteger a biodiversidade. Ele afeta diretamente o mercado internacional de commodities agrícolas, podendo alterar a competitividade dos países. Nesse estudo, calcula-se que o PCB atinge 81,2% das exportações mundiais das principais lavouras GM da atualidade: soja, milho, algodão e canola. Nesse contexto, o Brasil ocupa uma posição peculiar, pois foi o único grande produtor mundial de commodities agrícolas que ratificou o acordo. O objetivo central desse trabalho foi verificar as implicações (em termos de custos) e os impactos potenciais da ratificação do PCB pelo Brasil e seus possíveis efeitos no mercado internacional. A análise centrou-se nas negociações referentes ao Artigo 18 do PCB, que define procedimentos para transporte, manuseio, embalagem e uso de OVMs e restringiu-se ao mercado de soja. Primeiramente, definiu-se uma base teórica para analisar os efeitos de barreiras regulatórias no comércio internacional e no mercado doméstico de exportadores e importadores. Verificou-se que esses efeitos são incertos e dependem da capacidade da medida em questão de resolver ou minimizar falhas de mercado. Posteriormente, calculou-se os custos adicionais de identificação de carregamentos contendo OVMs com base em propostas feitas pelos países-Partes durante as negociações: \'contém\' com fornecimento de uma lista de eventos, \'contém\' com quantificação de eventos, e adoção de um sistema de preservação de identidade. Para fins de comparação, esses cálculos não foram feitos apenas para o Brasil, mas se estenderam para a Argentina e EUA, principais competidores brasileiros no mercado de soja. Os números demonstraram que os custos adicionais de implementação do PCB são mais elevados no Brasil do que nos concorrentes e que essa diferença aumenta à medida que as exigências de identificação tornam-se mais rígidas. Por fim, para verificar o impacto desses custos no mercado internacional, utilizou-se o Equilibrium Displacement Model e definiram-se dois cenários. O Cenário 1 considerou que apenas o Brasil cumpriria as normas de identificação do PCB e o Cenário 2 considerou que Argentina e EUA também adotariam medidas equivalentes. Os resultados evidenciaram que ambas situações implicariam em perdas para o Brasil. Considerando todo o complexo, as perdas poderiam chegar a US$ 133 milhões no Cenário 1 e a US$ 329 milhões no Cenário 2. Apesar das exportações brasileiras de soja em grão terem diminuído nos dois casos, as vendas de farelo e óleo aumentaram no Cenário 1, o que indica um incentivo ao processamento. No Cenário 2, entretanto, apenas as exportações de óleo apresentam bons resultados. Com relação aos outros países, o Cenário 2 apresenta melhores resultados. Dessa forma, espera-se que Argentina e EUA também adotem medidas semelhantes às exigidas pelo PCB. / The development of international rules, norms and standards related to the trade of GM products is complex and involves a diversity of interests. This complexity can be verified by the tough negotiations aiming at establishing procedures to put the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety - CPB in place. The CPB establishes norms and minimum standards to control the transboundary movements of Living Modified Organisms - LMOs in order to protect the biodiversity. It has a direct effect in the international agricultural commodities market and can even alter the countries\' competitiveness. This work estimates that 81.2% of the main GM crops (soybean, corn, canola and cotton) global exports are affected by the CPB. In this context, Brazil is in a peculiar position, as it was the only country among the biggest world agricultural commodities producers that has ratified the agreement. The main objective of this dissertation was to verify the implications (related to additional costs) and potential impacts of the CPB to Brazil and its possible outcomes for the international market. The analysis was restricted to the Protocol\'s Article 18 - which states the rules related to transport, handling, packing and use of LMOs - and to the soybean international market. First, a theoretical framework was defined in order to analyze the effects of regulatory barriers to the international trade and to the domestic markets of exporters and importers countries. Then, the necessary additional costs to identify the cargoes containing LMOs were calculated considering the main proposals submitted by CPB members during the negotiations: \'contains\' with a list of events, \'contains\' with quantification of events and the adoption of an identity preservation system. In order to compare the CPB effects on different countries, this procedure was not only applied to Brazil, but also to Argentina and the US, two important soybeans exporters that have not signed the agreement. The outcomes revealed that the compliance costs of the CPB requirements are greater in Brazil than its competitors and that this difference increases as the exigencies become stricter. Last, the potential impacts of these additional costs in the international market were estimated using the Equilibrium Displacement Model - EDM. Two scenarios were constructed: under Scenario 1 it was considered that only Brazil complied with CPB standards; under Scenario 2, Argentina and the US also adopted equivalent measures with those established by the Protocol. The results showed that Brazil would be harmed in both situations. Considering the whole soybean complex, the country could loose US$ 133 million under Scenario 1 and US$ 329 million under Scenario 2. Though Brazilian soybean exports decreased in both circumstances, it could be verified that there was a stimulus to meal and oil production in the country under the conditions settled in Scenario 1. In Scenario 2, however, the rise of exports concentrated only in the oil market. Regarding Argentina and the US, the Scenario 2 presented better results that Scenario 1. Therefore, it is almost certain that these countries will comply with CPB requirements. It implies that Brazil will incur in greater losses.

O estabelecimento de regras, normas e padrões internacionais relacionados ao comércio de produtos geneticamente modificados é bastante complexo e envolve uma diversidade de interesses. Essa complexidade pode ser evidenciada pela demora em se definir a forma de operacionalizar o Protocolo de Cartagena sobre Biossegurança - PCB. O PCB estabelece normas e padrões para regulamentar o comércio transfronteiriço de organismos vivos modificados com o objetivo de proteger a biodiversidade. Ele afeta diretamente o mercado internacional de commodities agrícolas, podendo alterar a competitividade dos países. Nesse estudo, calcula-se que o PCB atinge 81,2% das exportações mundiais das principais lavouras GM da atualidade: soja, milho, algodão e canola. Nesse contexto, o Brasil ocupa uma posição peculiar, pois foi o único grande produtor mundial de commodities agrícolas que ratificou o acordo. O objetivo central desse trabalho foi verificar as implicações (em termos de custos) e os impactos potenciais da ratificação do PCB pelo Brasil e seus possíveis efeitos no mercado internacional. A análise centrou-se nas negociações referentes ao Artigo 18 do PCB, que define procedimentos para transporte, manuseio, embalagem e uso de OVMs e restringiu-se ao mercado de soja. Primeiramente, definiu-se uma base teórica para analisar os efeitos de barreiras regulatórias no comércio internacional e no mercado doméstico de exportadores e importadores. Verificou-se que esses efeitos são incertos e dependem da capacidade da medida em questão de resolver ou minimizar falhas de mercado. Posteriormente, calculou-se os custos adicionais de identificação de carregamentos contendo OVMs com base em propostas feitas pelos países-Partes durante as negociações: \'contém\' com fornecimento de uma lista de eventos, \'contém\' com quantificação de eventos, e adoção de um sistema de preservação de identidade. Para fins de comparação, esses cálculos não foram feitos apenas para o Brasil, mas se estenderam para a Argentina e EUA, principais competidores brasileiros no mercado de soja. Os números demonstraram que os custos adicionais de implementação do PCB são mais elevados no Brasil do que nos concorrentes e que essa diferença aumenta à medida que as exigências de identificação tornam-se mais rígidas. Por fim, para verificar o impacto desses custos no mercado internacional, utilizou-se o Equilibrium Displacement Model e definiram-se dois cenários. O Cenário 1 considerou que apenas o Brasil cumpriria as normas de identificação do PCB e o Cenário 2 considerou que Argentina e EUA também adotariam medidas equivalentes. Os resultados evidenciaram que ambas situações implicariam em perdas para o Brasil. Considerando todo o complexo, as perdas poderiam chegar a US$ 133 milhões no Cenário 1 e a US$ 329 milhões no Cenário 2. Apesar das exportações brasileiras de soja em grão terem diminuído nos dois casos, as vendas de farelo e óleo aumentaram no Cenário 1, o que indica um incentivo ao processamento. No Cenário 2, entretanto, apenas as exportações de óleo apresentam bons resultados. Com relação aos outros países, o Cenário 2 apresenta melhores resultados. Dessa forma, espera-se que Argentina e EUA também adotem medidas semelhantes às exigidas pelo PCB. / The development of international rules, norms and standards related to the trade of GM products is complex and involves a diversity of interests. This complexity can be verified by the tough negotiations aiming at establishing procedures to put the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety - CPB in place. The CPB establishes norms and minimum standards to control the transboundary movements of Living Modified Organisms - LMOs in order to protect the biodiversity. It has a direct effect in the international agricultural commodities market and can even alter the countries\' competitiveness. This work estimates that 81.2% of the main GM crops (soybean, corn, canola and cotton) global exports are affected by the CPB. In this context, Brazil is in a peculiar position, as it was the only country among the biggest world agricultural commodities producers that has ratified the agreement. The main objective of this dissertation was to verify the implications (related to additional costs) and potential impacts of the CPB to Brazil and its possible outcomes for the international market. The analysis was restricted to the Protocol\'s Article 18 - which states the rules related to transport, handling, packing and use of LMOs - and to the soybean international market. First, a theoretical framework was defined in order to analyze the effects of regulatory barriers to the international trade and to the domestic markets of exporters and importers countries. Then, the necessary additional costs to identify the cargoes containing LMOs were calculated considering the main proposals submitted by CPB members during the negotiations: \'contains\' with a list of events, \'contains\' with quantification of events and the adoption of an identity preservation system. In order to compare the CPB effects on different countries, this procedure was not only applied to Brazil, but also to Argentina and the US, two important soybeans exporters that have not signed the agreement. The outcomes revealed that the compliance costs of the CPB requirements are greater in Brazil than its competitors and that this difference increases as the exigencies become stricter. Last, the potential impacts of these additional costs in the international market were estimated using the Equilibrium Displacement Model - EDM. Two scenarios were constructed: under Scenario 1 it was considered that only Brazil complied with CPB standards; under Scenario 2, Argentina and the US also adopted equivalent measures with those established by the Protocol. The results showed that Brazil would be harmed in both situations. Considering the whole soybean complex, the country could loose US$ 133 million under Scenario 1 and US$ 329 million under Scenario 2. Though Brazilian soybean exports decreased in both circumstances, it could be verified that there was a stimulus to meal and oil production in the country under the conditions settled in Scenario 1. In Scenario 2, however, the rise of exports concentrated only in the oil market. Regarding Argentina and the US, the Scenario 2 presented better results that Scenario 1. Therefore, it is almost certain that these countries will comply with CPB requirements. It implies that Brazil will incur in greater losses.