A partir del análisis de la evolución demográfica experimentada por la población de Cartagena entre 1480 y 1650, aproximadamente, caracterizada por un largo periodo de crecimiento (1480-1620). Se profundiza en las derivaciones económicas y sociales de dicha evolución. En la primera parte, tras el análisis demográfico, se procede a la explicación de las diversas coyunturas de cada actividad economía, desde la agricultura, la ganadería y la pesca, hasta el artesanado y el comercio, abordando los problemas del crecimiento de efectivos humanos y de la producción junto con los componentes que en ellos inciden (problemas de los coste en la expansión agrícola, de los arrendamientos de pastos en la actividad ganadera), y los conflictos que de ellos derivan. La industria artesanal se caracteriza, por contraste, en una gran debilidad de efectivos y una escasa organización gremial que no logra impedir la formación a finales del XVI de una industria más libre y de tipo portuario (jabonerías, tenerías, hornos bizcocheros, etc.). El comercio por su parte, muestra una evolución singular en tres etapas: una de escaso crecimiento (1520-1560) y otra de recesión (1620-60). Aparte de los elementos que caracterizan a esta evolución, como la progresiva instalación de genoveses, que se intensifica entre 1560 y 1620.

This study analyzes the contribution of Teresa de Cartagena, a deaf Spanish nun and author of the first known piece of writing by a Spanish woman. First, the work is put into its cultural and literary context. Second, the term "autohagiography," a hybrid of "autobiography" and "hagiography" is applied in order to understand that the figure that Teresa de Cartagena employs to express her spiritual fight against sadness. It is conclueded that Teresa de Cartagena constructs herself as if she were a saint, and she uses herself as a model for the faithful and the infirm.

The objective of this research is to identify the need for stricter environmental standards and regulations in three areas of study. Organized by their level of analysis, these areas are Latin America (at the System-Level-of Analysis), Colombia (at the State-Level-of-Analysis), and the city of Cartagena (at the Sub-National-Level of Analysis). This research was accomplished in two phases. The first involved conducting an exhaustive literature search of sources, germane to the objective, published in Spanish and English. The second featured a site inspection conducted over a 10-day period during the month of May 2016 to Cartagena, Colombia. The purpose of the site inspection was to interview locals and to photographically document waste disposal practices. The results of this research determined that government at all levels (system, state, and subnational) play a significant and sometimes determinant role in managing waste and water pollution that are responsible for health problems primarily among the poor; these health problems are discussed in detail. This research discovered that the lack of government intervention is responsible for reducing the efficacy of waste management and water sanitation services. This research concludes with a discussion of how proactive waste management and water sanitation policies and practices can have a significant benefit not only to improving health but also has significant economic, social and environmental benefits that may reach beyond local levels.

Esta tesis busca analizar cómo los reglamentos técnicos, aprobados y aplicados por los Países Miembros de la Comunidad Andina (CAN), pueden ser considerados como restricciones al comercio incompatibles con el principio de libre circulación de mercancías consagrado en el artículo 72 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. Esta investigación busca responder a la siguiente pregunta: ¿Por qué los reglamentos técnicos pueden ser considerados como restricciones al comercio incompatibles con los artículos 72 y 73 del Acuerdo de Cartagena? La tesis busca analizar de qué manera la aplicación de los criterios que la Secretaría General y el Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Andina (TJCA) han desarrollado a través de sus pronunciamientos resulta esencial para que una medida adoptada por un País Miembro de la CAN no constituya una infracción de los artículos 72 y 73 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. La tesis plantea y busca demostrar que los reglamentos técnicos aplicados de manera injustificada y desproporcional constituyen una restricción al comercio, y por lo tanto, dichas medidas contravienen el artículo 72 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. En esta investigación se revisa la jurisprudencia del Tribunal de Justicia de Unión Europea (TJUE) desarrollada a través de la fórmula Dassonville. La revisión de esta jurisprudencia desarrollada por el TJUE se ha realizado debido a que la Secretaría General y el TJCA han interpretado ampliamente el concepto de restricciones de todo orden contenido en los artículos 72 y 73 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. Esta interpretación ha sido desarrollada a fin de incluir cualquier medida que tenga el efecto o el objeto de restringir las importaciones, por lo cual estas instituciones andinas han recurrido a la jurisprudencia del TJUE. Asimismo, la tesis revisa la jurisprudencia de la Organización Mundial del Comercio referida a la adopción de los reglamentos técnicos y la aplicación del Acuerdo sobre Obstáculos Técnicos al Comercio, teniendo en cuenta que la Secretaría General de la CAN también cita este Acuerdo en sus Resoluciones. Los casos de estudios seleccionados (las Resoluciones 1289 y 1695 de la Secretaría General de la CAN) buscan ilustrar cómo los reglamentos técnicos pueden ser 5 calificados como restricciones al comercio contrarias a los artículos 72 y 73 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. La tesis concluye que los reglamentos técnicos aplicados de manera injustificada y desproporcional constituyen una restricción al comercio y, por lo tanto, dichas medidas violan el artículo 72 del Acuerdo de Cartagena. A la luz de la jurisprudencia internacional revisada se observa que los reglamentos técnicos que no son razonables o restringen el comercio más allá de lo necesario son incompatibles con el principio de libre circulación de mercancías. / This thesis seeks to analyze how technical regulations adopted and applied by the Member States of the Andean Community (CAN) can be considered as restrictions on trade incompatible with the principle of principle of free movement of goods enshrined in Article 72 of the Cartagena Agreement. The purpose of this thesis is to address the question of how technical regulations can be regarded as restrictions on trade inconsistent with Articles 72 and 73 of the Cartagena Agreement. This thesis seeks to analyze the manner in which the application of the criteria developed by the General Secretariat and the Court of Justice of the Andean Community (CJAC) decisions turns out to be essential in order to avoid that a measure adopted by a Member State of the CAN could be considered as an infringement of Articles 72 and 73 of the Cartagena Agreement. The thesis proposes and seeks to demonstrate that unjustified and disproportional technical regulations constitute a restriction on trade. Therefore, these measures are an infringement of Article 72 of the Cartagena Agreement. This research reviews the European Court of Justice (ECJ) case law developed through the Dassonville formula. The review of this case law developed by the ECJ has been undertaken owing to the fact that the General Secretariat and the CJAC have widely interpreted the concept of restrictions of all kinds provided for in Articles 72 and 73 of the Cartagena Agreement. This interpretation has been developed in order to include any measure that has the effect or object of restricting imports, and for these purposes, these Andean institutions have resorted to the ECJ case law. Likewise, this thesis reviews the World Trade Organization case law concerning the adoption of technical regulations and the application of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade taking into account that the General Secretariat cites this Agreement in its Resolutions as well. The selected case studies (the Resolutions 1289 and 1695 of the General Secretariat) seek to illustrate how technical regulations can be considered as restrictions on trade 7 incompatible with Articles 72 and 73 of the Cartagena Agreement. This thesis concludes that unjustified and disproportional technical regulations constitute a restriction on trade. Therefore, these measures violate Article 72 of the Cartagena Agreement. In light of the international case law reviewed, it can be said that unreasonable technical regulations or those regulations which are more trade-restrictive than necessary are incompatible with the principle of free movement of goods.

This thesis attempts to show that, although it is in the interest of regional common market organizations to regulate foreign direct investment, such regulation will probably be unsuccessful unless the regulations are lenient to business and are not used as instruments of major political goals. The east African Community, the Andean Common Market, and the European Economic Community are examined. Research sources used were United States government publications, documents from the common markets involved, United Nations and International Monetary Fund statistics, articles from major political science and business journals, and books.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar o potencial de conflito entre normas internacionais aplicáveis ao comércio transfronteiriço de alimentos transgênicos, tendo como foco as tensões entre o Protocolo de Cartagena sobre Segurança Biológica e os acordos da OMC relevantes (SPS, TBT, GATT-94 e TRIPs), assim como as fórmulas existentes para seu encaminhamento no âmbito desses acordos e da Convenção de Viena sobre Direito dos Tratados. A fim de demonstrar a complexidade do marco regulatório internacional aplicável a OGMs, são analisadas as determinações do painel da OMC na disputa relativa à moratória européia na aprovação de novos produtos biotecnológicos, com relação aos seguintes pontos: (a) aplicabilidade da Convenção sobre Diversidade Biológica, do Protocolo de Cartagena e do princípio da precaução na interpretação dos acordos abrangidos; (b) aplicação concorrente dos Acordos SPS e TBT à disputa; (c) aplicação de dispositivos excludentes do SPS. Da análise dessas determinações, pode-se depreender que o potencial de conflito entre normas internacionais aplicáveis a produtos GMs não se limita às tensões entre o Protocolo de Cartagena e os acordos da OMC, estando presente também entre esses acordos. A fim de ilustrar o paralelismo de desafios na frente multilateral e doméstica em relação à regulamentação de OGMs, parte do trabalho foi dedicada à análise de um conjunto de ações perante o Judiciário brasileiro envolvendo conflitos entre normas nacionais de distintos níveis hierárquicos aplicáveis a produtos transgênicos. Essas ações envolveram desde divergências quanto ao dispositivo constitucional aplicável para determinar a esfera de competência da União e dos Estados para legislar sobre distintos aspectos da regulamentação de OGMs até questionamentos à constitucionalidade e à legalidade de determinados diplomas legais infra-constitucionais. A crescente judicialização no Brasil dos conflitos de normas que disciplinam a liberação de produtos transgênicos ilustra as limitações do marco regulatório nacional, também presentes na frente multilateral, para acomodar satisfatoriamente os objetivos de proteção da biodiversidade e da saúde humana de um lado, e da livre comercialização de alimentos geneticamente modificados, de outro. / The main goal of this work is to analyse the potencial of conflict among international norms applicable to the transboundary trade of GMOs, taking into account the tensions between the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the relevant WTO agreements (SPS, TBT, GATT-94 and TRIPs). An analysis of the conflict clauses in these agreements, as well as in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties is also made. In order to demonstrate the complexity of the international GMO legal framework, this work examines the determinations of the WTO panel on the biotech case involving the delay of European regulatory authorities to approve new biotechnological products. In this analysis special attention is given to the following points: (a) applicability of the Convention on Biological Diversity, of the Cartagena Protocol and of the precautionary principle in the interpretation of the covered agreements; (b) simultaneous application of the SPS and the TBT to the dispute; (c) application of provisions of the SPS which are mutually exclusive. From the analysis of these determinations one can infer that the potential of conflict among international norms applicable to GMO products is not limited to existing tensions between the Protocol and WTO agreements, but is also present among the latter agreements. In order to demonstrate the coincidence of challenges involved in the regulation of GMOs at the multilateral as well as at the domestic level, part of this work was dedicated to the analysis of a set of claims before the Brazilian courts involving conflicts of norms of different hierarchical status applicable to GMOs. These claims comprised divergent opinions regarding which constitutional provision should be applicable in order to define Federal and State Government´s respective competence to legislate on different aspects of GMOs regulation. These claims also involved direct attacks on the constitutionality and legality of some infra-constitutional norms. The growing judicialization of conflicts of norms that govern the release of genetically modified products illustrates some of the shortcomings of Brazil´s domestic legal framework - that also exist at the multilateral level - that doesn´t allow a mutually satisfactory accomodation between the goals of protection of biodiversity and human health on the hand and the free trade of GMOs on the other hand.

A partir de las actas capitulares del Concejo de Cartagena (a��os 1526-1555), de las cartas reales y de otros documentos como expedientes y procesos conservados en el Archivo Municipal de Cartagena, as�� como de la documentaci��n de la secci��n Guerra Antigua del Archivo General de Simancas (generada por el Consejo de Guerra de Carlos V), se expone en esta tesis la evoluci��n de la poblaci��n de Cartagena de Levante y de algunos de los problemas de su devenir. Entre otros, se recogen en esta tesis las dificultades de la defensa de la costa y de la ciudad frente a los corsarios argelinos o berberiscos(Barbarroja, el Jud��o, Dragut), o los que surgieron en las Comunidades de Castilla (1520-1521), como el gobierno desenvuelto por los pescadores y la expulsi��n de los regidores grandes ganaderos y propietarios de tierras.

El Hospital de Caridad de Cartagena fue fundado en 1693. Objetivo: determinar su área de influencia, los problemas sanitarios, enfermedades y lesiones más frecuentes y otros aspectos. La fuente principal ha sido el archivo del Hospital. Entre 1900 y 1936 el Hospital experimenta un gran auge. El 58% de enfermos proceden de la Ciudad, siguiéndole la zona minera (19%). Existe una correlación negativa entre los ingresos y la estancia media. Enfermedades más frecuentes: aparato digestivo (21%), respiratorias (15%), circulatorias (10%) y genitourinarias (9%). Enfermedades infecto-contagiosas más frecuentes: tuberculosis (20%), difteria (19%), paludismo (17%), sífilis (16%), fiebres tifoideas (4%) y viruela (3%). La tasa más elevada de hospitalización por paludismo corresponde a la zona húmeda de “El Hondón”. Existe una correlación negativa entre consumo de pan y de carne por estancia y número de estancias. Entre las urgencias predominan las heridas (59%), traumatismos osteoarticulares (24,3%), quemaduras (3,3%) y cuerpos extraños (2,6%). / The “Hospital de Caridad” in Cartagena was founded in 1693. Objective: to determine its area of influence, health problems, most common diseases and injuries and other aspects. The archive of the Hospital has been the main information source. Between 1900 and 1936 the Hospital experiences a great development. 58% of patients are from the City followed by those from the mining zone (19%). A negative correlation was observed between admissions and average length of inpatient hospital stay. Most frequent diseases: digestive system (21%), respiratory system (15%), cardiovascular system (10%) and genitourinary system (9%). Most frequent infect-contagious diseases: tuberculosis (20%), diphtheria (19%), malaria (17%), syphilis (16%), typhoid fever (4%) and smallpox (3%). The main zone affected by malaria is the wetland area called “El Hondón”. A negative correlation was observed between bread and meat consumption per hospital stay and average length of stay. Most common emergencies are wounds (59%), osteoarticular traumatisms (24.3%), burns (3.3) and foreign bodies (2.6%).

Este estudio trata de los ritos, costumbres y gustos en las diferentes fases de la vida de los individuos de Murcia y Cartagena durante los reinados de Carlos III y Carlos IV y del tipo de posesiones a las que tuvieron acceso en lo relativo al vestido, el adorno y el modo de decorar y amueblar la salas de recibir de las viviendas. Artículos indispensables para abordar en qué medida impactaron las modas y usos extranjeros en una sociedad en que la apariencia y la sociabilidad se convirtieron en requisitos indispensables para exhibir lo que se quería demostrar ante los demás. Aspectos que ahondan en la cotidianeidad e identidad de los antiguos pobladores de dos ciudades pertenecientes al mismo Reino con semejanzas y diferencias entre sí en una etapa de cambios y permanencias, de modernidad y tradición. / This study deals with the rituals, customs and tastes in the different phases of life of individuals from Murcia and Cartagena during the reigns of Carlos III and Carlos IV and with the kind of belongings which they had access to as regards clothing, adornment and how to decorate and refurnish the receiving rooms of the houses. Articles necessary to address the extent of the impact if foreign fashions and customs in a society where the appearance and sociability became prerequisites to show off what they wanted to demonstrate to others. Aspects that delve into the everyday and identity of the ancient inhabitants of two towns belonging to the same kingdom with similarities and differences among them in a time of change and permanence, of modernity and tradition.

La Gestión de Información es la disciplina que, mediante un apropiado análisis de las necesidades del usuario, ofrece la información más adecuada con objeto de optimizar funciones. Los historiadores trabajan con fuentes primarias conservadas en archivos históricos, que suelen ser heterogéneas, están segmentadas y contienen múltiples datos, lo que dificulta su trabajo. Por ello, llevamos a cabo un estudio interdisciplinar, en el que partiendo de la teoría documental, sobre problemas concretos generados, se van ofreciendo soluciones, aplicando y desarrollando técnicas, métodos y herramientas tecnológicas que facilitan la gestión documental y la recuperación de la información allí contenida, entre ellas, un software genealógico así como herramientas de representación de redes sociales y de difusión digital basadas en tecnología 2.0. Para ello, se escoge como muestra de estudio una masa documental amplia y relevante: las probanzas, fundamentales para afrontar un estudio de genealogía en el ámbito naval. / Management is the discipline which, through an appropriate analysis of the user´s needs, offers to them suitable information with the aim of to optimize their tasks. Researchers, who work in the History field, normally use historical documents. These kinds of documents, in general, are heterogeneous, they are segmented, and they contain multiple data. As a consequence, all these characteristics complicate historians job. For this reason, we carry out an interdisciplinary study, in which on the basis of the documental theory, on specific problems generated, we offer solutions applying and developing techniques, methods and technological tools that make easy the information management and the information retrieval. Some of them are genealogical software, social network representation tools, and digital dissemination tools based on 2.0 technologies. In order to reach this goal, we choose as a sample, a large and important information mass: the probanzas, key documents to deal with a study of genealogy in the naval field.