Syftet med denna sociologiska undersökning var att studera hur introverta individer har upplevt sin tillvaro innan och under Covid-19 pandemin i relation till en norm om extraversion. Studien har fokuserat på följande frågeställningar: Hur upplever introverta individer normen om extraversion? Hur upplever introverta individer att deras tillvaro har förändrats av Covid-19 pandemins utveckling? Hur upplever introverta individer att normen om extraversion har förändrats av Covid-19 pandemin? Ambitionen var att belysa problematiken med en extravert samhällsnorm vilket har genomförts utefter en hermeneutisk vetenskapsteoretisk ansats. Empiriinsamlingen baserades på åtta semi-strukturerade intervjuer med individer som identifierade sig som introverta. Studiens teoretiska ramverk bestod av Erving Goffmans (2014) dramaturgiska teori och Thomas J. Scheffs (1990) teori om sociala band vilka låg till grund för analysen av empirin.    Resultaten av studien påvisade att en norm om extraversion finns och påverkar introverta individers tillvaro negativt. Vidare kom studien fram till att introverta individer haft en övergripande positiv tillvaro under Covid-19 pandemin. Avslutningsvis visade studien på att normen om extraversion kvarstod efter det att Covid-19 pandemins restriktioner släppt. Detta innebar att en slutsats kunde dras om att normer har en stark inverkan på vårt samhälle och att förändring av dessa kan ta tid. / The aim of this study in sociology was to examine how introverted individuals have experienced their being before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in relation to a norm of extraversion. The study focused on the following questions: How do introverted individuals experience the norm of extraversion? How do introverted individuals experience that their being have been changed during the Covid-19 pandemic? How do introverted individuals experience that the norm of extraversion have changed due to the Covid-19 pandemic? The ambition was to illuminate the issue of an extraverted social norm, which have been done through a hermeneutic theoretical approach. The empirical collection are based on eight semi-structured interviews of individuals who identify themselves as introverts. The theoretical framework includes Erving Goffman´s (2014) dramaturgical theory and Thomas J. Scheff´s (1990) theory of social bonds.   The result indicated that a norm of extraversion exists and affects introverted individuals negatively. The study also shows that introverted individuals had an overall positive being during the Covid-19 pandemic. Finally, a conclusion was made that norms have a strong impact on our society and that changing them takes time, which refers to the experience that the extraverted norm remains after the Covid-19 pandemic restrictions have been lifted.

This thesis investigates the existence of the turn-of-the-month (ToM) effect on the Swedish stock market and further examines whether this calendar anomaly is persistent but different during the Covid-19 pandemic. The main purpose of this study is to determine if the ToM effect is significant in the Swedish stock market over twelve years, particularly during the Covid-19 pandemic. The major finding is that the ToM effect is statistically significant for all indexes except for the large cap. The ToM window for the mid- and all cap indexes is significant for the last four trading days of the month to the first trading day of the next month. It is also significant for the small cap index during the last four trading days of the month to the first two trading days of the next month. The results of a significant ToM effect are similar to those of prior research, except that the Swedish stock market has an earlier ToM window. The Covid-19 pandemic is divided into three windows – before the virus has reached Sweden, before vaccinations, and after vaccinations. The results indicate that the ToM effect is insignificant when Covid-19 had not yet reached Sweden. Additionally, this study discovers a significant ToM pattern in the small cap and mid cap indexes, but not for the large cap or all cap indexes before vaccinations and after vaccinations. Hence, the ToM effect is persistent but different during a time of a major crisis, which in this paper is the time of the Covid-19 pandemic.  The research approach is deductive and quantitative. All data is collected from Nasdaq as observations of the daily adjusted closing prices starting from 1/4/2010 to 4/22/2022, and consists of the indexes: OMXSCAPGI, OMXS30GI, OMXSSCGI, and OMXSMCGI. The daily returns are then regressed on dummy variables for the trading days, by using different ToM windows to find results if these ToM windows are significant or not.

Background: The Covid-19 pandemic came suddenly and despite our efforts to limit the spread of the virus many people lost their lives. Nurses, the largest group of health care workers, played a crucial role in the caretaking of patients. They cared, informed, screened, organized and managed teams, making them central to patients´ care in that crisis. Aim: The aim is to explore nurses´ experiences of caring for Covid-19 patients at hospitals during the Covid-19 pandemic. Method: A qualitative review based on ten scientific articles. They were analyzed with a thematic inductive analysis following the Braun and Clarks model. Results: Two themes were identified: struggling with new challenges and coping with new challenges. With the respective subthemes: Personal Protective Equipment, fear of Covid-19, feeling lost, abandonment and growing as a nurse and finding strength within the team. Conclusion: This research shows that nurses faced many difficulties while caring for Covid-19 patients, whether it was the lack of PPE, the constant changes in protocols or the fear of being infected. More studies are needed to better prepare nurses if a similar situation occur, which would ensure good and safe nursing care for patients.

This dissertation comprises three papers introducing strategies, models, and frameworks to guide pandemic response. The first paper uses a novel mathematical model to analyze the coordination between government and humanitarian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in response to pandemics. This is a vital form of public-private partnership between governments as the primary source for the humanitarian supplies required during a crisis and aid organizations. This coordination involves the equitable distribution of personal protective equipment, including face masks and face shields among health workers, patients, and the public in hospitals. Considering social costs such as deprivation and equity costs in the model, in addition to the other important classic cost terms, enables managers to organize the best possible response when such outbreaks happen. The second paper introduces a decision support framework designed to assist healthcare managers, and clinical informatics specialists in analyzing and selecting the most appropriate consensus algorithm for their organization's blockchain-based health platforms, with a specific focus on managing pandemic-related information. Blockchain technology holds great potential in addressing pandemics by enhancing security and transparency in various aspects of pandemic tracking and mitigation while promoting public engagements by facilitating real-time exchange of electronic health information. By improving information sharing and coordination among healthcare organizations, it offers more effective response efforts and helps reduce the spread of viruses. However, the performance of consensus algorithms, which are a crucial component of blockchain architecture, can vary, posing a challenge in selecting the appropriate algorithm. To address this, the framework incorporates two techniques: data envelopment analysis (DEA) and the ranking distribution technique. DEA enables the analysis of efficiency without relying solely on expert judgment, providing a more objective assessment. The ranking distribution technique enhances differentiation among algorithms, providing decision-makers with a robust basis for selecting the most suitable blockchain architecture and its associated properties. The third paper focuses on the challenges of disseminating guidance-related information to the public during a pandemic, specifically the role of opinion leaders as reliable sources of information. The study determines the practical characteristics of pandemic opinion leaders on public attitudes using surveys and identifies domain-sensitive pandemic opinion leaders on Twitter based on the discovered characteristics using social network analysis and text mining. The framework's results show that pandemic opinion leaders are active in eight different domains on the Twitter platform. Results also demonstrate that trust is the most influential characteristic of pandemic opinion leaders, while expertise, uniqueness, innovation, and reputation also play important roles. / Doctor of Philosophy / This dissertation presents a collection of three research papers that offer insights and practical techniques and strategies to effectively tackle the challenges posed by pandemics through enhanced information sharing, public engagement, and robust public-private partnerships. The first paper introduces a novel mathematical model that thoroughly examines the collaboration between governments and humanitarian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) during crises such as the Covid-19 pandemic. The model's primary focus is on the equitable distribution of vital supplies, including face masks and shields, to healthcare workers as well as the public. By incorporating considerations of social costs, fairness, and other critical factors, this model aids managers in organizing the most efficient response to initial impacts of outbreaks within a short-term planning horizon. Our primary objective is to ensure the prompt and equitable delivery of essential supplies to individuals in need, achieved primarily through establishing strong public-private partnerships. The second paper proposes a decision support framework for healthcare managers, IT analysts, and clinical informatics specialists to help them effectively analyze consensus algorithms, as the most important layer of blockchain architecture. The framework further helps them select the most suitable algorithm for their organization's blockchain-based health platforms, aligning with specific policies, needs, requirements, and goals in managing pandemic-related information. Blockchain technology offers potential in tracking medical supplies, identifying virus hotspots, and verifying protective equipment authenticity to manage pandemics. By enhancing information sharing and coordination among healthcare organizations, blockchain can minimize virus spread and improve overall response efforts. The proposed framework reduces reliance on expert judgment and addresses data uncertainty when selecting proper algorithms for blockchain-based information management systems in mitigating the effects of pandemics. The third paper delves into the intricate challenges associated with effectively disseminating guidance-related information to the public during a pandemic, placing particular emphasis on the pivotal role played by opinion leaders (OLs) as reliable sources. This study thoroughly examines the distinctive characteristics of pandemic OLs and their profound influence on public attitudes. By employing surveys, social network analysis, and text mining techniques on Twitter data, the research successfully identifies OLs within distinct pandemic-related domains. The study's significant findings provide insights into the dynamic role assumed by pandemic OLs on Twitter and their consequential impact on public perception and behavior across various domains. Ultimately, the dissertation findings strive to support decision-makers and public health officials in their efforts to effectively manage pandemics and protect public health. The research emphasizes facilitation of seamless, rapid, and dependable information sharing across various planning horizons.

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This thesis explores the challenges associated with developing the health care workforce in a Swedish municipality in the post-Covid-19 era. And it explores leaders' perspectives on workforce development. The study uses semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis to uncover key themes and gain insight into the challenges and opportunities these leaders face. The results reveal major challenges associated with the shortage of manpower and the difficulty of attracting and retaining new employees. The results of the thesis reveal also many important aspects that need to be worked on to develop the healthcare workforce in Sweden. The most important of which are long-term strategic planning, recruitment and retention strategies, data-based decision-making, developing communication between leaders and employees and various levels and departments within healthcare institutions, coordination and cooperation with other institutions and government agencies, work. In addition to the importance of life-work balance, promoting a culture of education and continuous development. The findings of this thesis provide valuable insights for policy-makers and operating leaders in Swedish municipalities, particularly in the healthcare sector, with regard to developing strategies to meet workforce needs. This thesis also provides a knowledge base for future research by providing a contextual understanding and theoretical and practical knowledge in relation to workforce development in the field of healthcare.

This study aims to generate а comprehensive understanding of how the Covid-19 pandemic has influenced the investment approach of venture capital funds in the Fintech industry. This aims to bring further insights into how venture capital investors react to the Covid-19pandemic. Furthermore, this research aims to identify the degree to which this reaction is аconsequence of rational decision-making instead of cognitive biases. Simultaneously, this paper will provide insights into the future trajectory of the Fintech industry, showing how major global events such as the pandemic can shape its direction whilst bringing new perspectives to similar phenomena. The following theories are tested against the findings in order to clarify if and where specifically new knowledge is created: Innovation diffusion theory, Rational Choice Theory, Behavioural Finance (with the addition of the Adverse Selection Principle), and Real options theory. A qualitative method base, an exploratory approach with а subjective ontological approach, an interpretive epistemological approach, and an abductive research approach was chosen as suitable research philosophies. A literature review was conducted to uncover areas of interest that require more investigation. The effect of the pandemic on the investment approach in the FinTech industry was identified as а key area for research. The research is based on semistructured interviews with venture capital investors in Sweden. Empirical evidence was generated through an interview with eight venture capital investors at relatively high levels of specificity in terms of the professional hierarchy. The empirical data were analysed using interpretive content analysis which is а thematic data analysis approach. The results of this study provide evidence that the Covid-19 pandemic has indeed had a significant influence on the investment approach within the Fintech industry. The empirical evidence suggests that the pandemic has accelerated the adoption of digital solutions which in turn has fostered growth and competition and attracted interest from investors. With this said findings revealed that the Covid-19 pandemic has caused а change in investor approach. Additionally, the participants revealed а multitude of varying responses which indicates complexity and uncertainty in the investment landscape.

The study investigates the discrimination of migrant workers in Singapore during the Covid-19 pandemic. The singaporian government applied different pandemic restrictions for migrant workers in contrast with other visa holders during the whole pandemic, ranging from quarantines to pass applications. By using the theories of T.H Marshall as an analytical tool, a comparison is made how different restrictions affected both migrant workers and other visa holders. The study shows that migrant workers were severely discriminated against by the singaporian government during the pandemic, and that in all analytical categories studied they were worse off than the compared group. The study also shows that Marshall’s theory of social rights appeared appropriate for the analysis, but needed slight developments to be applied correctly for the purposes of the study.

This study aims to explain how the Covid-19 pandemic impacted men’s and women’s incomes differently at a local municipality level in Sweden. Using panel data for Sweden’s municipalities from 2011-2021, a difference-in-difference design is used to examine how the pandemic has affected the average yearly income for the population aged 20-64 and how the effects are distributed across different age groups. Further, all data is collected from Statistics Sweden. The excess mortality rate is used to measure the pandemic's intensity. The main finding of this study suggests that women experienced a more significant decrease in incomes than men, with declines in incomes of 0.62% for women and 0.49% for men, which is statistically significant. Further, the difference-in-difference-coefficient for income differences is positive and statistically significant, indicating an increase in the income gap between men and women by 1.3% due to the pandemic. The effect of the pandemic on incomes varied across different age groups, and the results indicated a notable increase in income difference of 28.9% within the age group of 50-64 years.

The Covid-19 global pandemic has challenged traditional models of leadership and change management. In a few months, organisations were forced to transform into working virtually, either partially or wholly. In this context, leadership practices have been crucial to the survival of organisations and their capability to manage that change with minimum interruption and constant productivity. Leadership is a complex social and organisational phenomenon, and this study takes on the novel Leadership-as-practice perspective that understands leadership as an emerging and unfolding process through daily experience and offers an alternative to restrictive traditional competency models. In the era of communications technology, traditional leadership models, remote working, and change management have already been intensively studied. However, little research in the IT management area combines those three topics in the context of a crisis, and leaders were left without clear and researchbased references to guide their efforts during this pandemic. Thus, this study seeks to close that research gap and identify which practices leaders used to strategically and effectively leverage virtual teams to sustain productivity and keep business operational during a global crisis. This study was conducted with a case study research strategy, and data were collected from eleven semistructured interviews with leaders from different levels and organisations across Europe and North America. The chosen data analysis method was grounded theory to ensure findings were grounded in data, along with thematic analysis and constant comparative analysis. Results revealed three categories of practices were central to managing the change to virtual collaboration during the Covid-19 pandemic: Intentional and frequent communications, adaptability, and people-centric focus. Previous research indicates these were not common to other crises, and their absence might have led to destructive leadership behaviours during the pandemic context. These results are coherent with the recent rise of the transformational leadership current and its emphasis on human values in business contexts. From a research perspective, this study fills the gap in extant research and contributes to the growing body of literature using the Leadership-as-practice perspective. From a business perspective, these practices offer leaders a simple framework to guide their change efforts and might imply a need to rethink the manager-team member relationship and responsibilities. Similarly, they might point towards a greater responsibility for organisations to address remote working and secure employee well-being during crises.