abstract: One of the theoretical cores and values of good governance is the accountability of public employees, where the citizens expect the public employees to maintain professional standards, avoid conflicts of interest, respect the principles of fair and impartial treatment, and use public money wisely. However, are these unique moral standards to which only public employees are held? The dissertation seeks to examine how the public evaluates the unethical behaviors of public and private leaders differently to better understand the sources of public and private sector differences in the public’s normative evaluations. Based on a randomized online vignette experiment with 1,569 respondents residing in the United States collected in Amazon’s Mechanical Turk platform, the dissertation confirms that public authorities face different levels of public tolerance relative to business managers. More specifically, the unethical behaviors of a public manager are less likely to be tolerated than the same misconduct of a business manager, while ethical offenses of elected officials are least likely to be tolerated by the public. However, the public is relatively much less tolerant of public managers’ and elected officials’ petty violations relative to business managers than they do for more egregious violations of public authorities. The dissertation further finds that public evaluations are contingent upon the respondents’ work experience in different sectors. Individuals working in government are more likely to be tolerant of petty unethical behaviors, regardless of whom they evaluate, but they become much less tolerant of public managers’ and elected officials’ grand ethical violations. The longer individuals work in for-profit organizations, the less likely they are to tolerate public authorities’ petty violations of organizational rules while consistently being more accepting of the unethical behaviors of business managers. Using an experimental design, the dissertation finds the importance of a fair and legitimate use of tax money in the public’s moral evaluations of public leadership and further discusses the potential sources of public skepticism of the public sector. Furthermore, the public and private sector comparison provides theoretical and practical implications for ethics reform in the era of collaborative governance. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Public Administration and Policy 2020

In cities we generally distinguish between public and private space. This thesis tackles the distinction between public and private property and searches for the urban commons where property is determined by collective action and thus creates a greater spatial justice. A case study analyzes the Urban Garden Project “Trädgård på spåret” in Stockholm and shows how unconventional arrangements can generate a lively place in the urban fabric. The final discussion interprets the concept of urban commons and contemplates its classification within the planning discipline. / I städer skiljer vi generellt mellan offentligt och privat utrymme. Denna avhandlingförsöker att nyansera den enkla distinktionen mellan offentlig och privat mark ochgår på jakt efter de urbana allmänningar (urban commons) vilkas ägande bestämsav kollektivism och som skapar spatiell rättvisa (spatial justice). En fallstudieanalyserar Urban Garden-projektet «Trädgård på Spåret» i Stockholm och visarhur okonventionella arrangemang har gett upphov till en livlig plats, som går långtutöver trädgårdens traditionella gränser. I den avslutande diskussionen tolkar vibegreppet urbana allmänningar och betraktar dess placering i planeringsämnet. / In Städten unterscheiden wir generell zwischen öffentlichem und privatem Raum.Diese Thesis versucht die simple Unterscheidung zwischen öffentlichem undprivatem Grundeigentum aufzubrechen und begibt sich auf die Suche nach der‚urbanen Allmende’ (urban commons) in der Eigentum durch Kollektivismus bestimmtwird und somit räumliche Gerechtigkeit (spatial justice) schafft. Eine Fallstudieanalysiert das urbane Gartenprojekt „Trädgård på spåret“ in Stockholm und zeigtauf wie durch unkonventionelle Regelungen ein lebhafter Ort entstanden ist, dersich in die Stadt verwurzelt hat und weit über die Grenzen des Gärtners hinausgeht.In der abschließenden Diskussion wird der Begriff der urbanen Allmendeinterpretiert und dessen Einordnung in die Planungsdisziplin betrachtet. / Urban Form and Social Behavior

The media have a critical role to play in informing and changing public opinion on climate change, "the defining human development issue of our generation" (United Nations Development Programme for Human Development Report, 2008, 1). Developing countries are most likely to suffer the worst effects of climate change, yet few studies exist on climate change communication in the media in developing countries and in particular in Africa. Studies on climate change communication in the media focus mostly on the print media and on developed countries, yet in Africa, more people consume their news through television or radio. So far, no study has examined television news reports of a United Nations Conference of the Parties in Africa. This study examines the way four South African television news stations (three public and one private) framed climate change news over six weeks: two weeks before, during and after the 17th United Nations Conferences of the Parties in Durban (COP17) South Africa, 2011/11/07 – 2012/01/07. Coding words were used to identify climate change stories in the main newscasts on SABC 1, 2, 3 and e.tv each day. These were transcribed and in the cases of SABC1 and 2 broadcasts translated from three indigenous languages (Afrikaans, isiXhosa and isiZulu) into English. A quantitative, descriptive statistical analysis looked at the occurrence of four primary frames in these climate change stories, using binary coding questions to identify each frame. The results in the binary coding sheets were analysed by using spreadsheets. The coding questions were also used to identify and explore secondary and additional frames, which were then illustrated in graphs. Differences in framing between public and private television were also illustrated in graphs (for example local versus foreign stories, time devoted to stories, depth of stories and occurrence of climate change stories with a human angle). Secondly, a qualitative inductive analysis of text and visual material looked at links between frames (for example the link between extreme weather conditions and human action using cause and impact visuals, as well as the link between news image and source – the framing of the politician, the activist and the scientist.) This section also looked at emotionally anchoring images of hope and guilt and the role of banners, posters and maps in climate change stories on television. Though other studies claim that coverage of the summit was "almost invisible" (Finlay 2012, 16) this study shows very high coverage on especially SABC 1 (isiXhosa and isiZulu). The following hypotheses were confirmed: the political/economic frame will dominate on all stations during COP17 but the ecological frame will be highest on at least some stations in the weeks after COP17. The ethics frame will be dominated by the secondary "Inequality/Justice" frame while the "Religion" frame will be of minimal importance. When activists set the agenda, the motivational frame will hardly feature. Climate change scepticism will receive little attention on South African television. Local (South African and African) stories will be more prominent on public television than on private television.

This thesis examines various aspects of English and Canadian charity law in terms of their relationship with the contested categories of ‘public law’ and ‘private law’. It argues that the law of charities can be regarded as a hybrid legal discipline in both a general or categorical sense, and in the context-specific or functional sense that both the conditions for obtaining charitable status, and the regulation of the conduct of charities and their trustees, are continually being adjusted in such a way as to maintain in a broad sense a functional equilibrium between individual project pursuit and collective project pursuit; that is to say, an equilibrium between the protection of the autonomy of property-owning individuals to control and direct their own wealth, and the furtherance of competing public interests or visions of the good. After sketching out the history and nature of the common law charities tradition and the contemporary English and Canadian regulatory regimes, the thesis pursues its analytical and comparative hypotheses by examining two important features of English and Canadian charity law, the public benefit doctrine and the rules of locus standi that determine who may seek relief for misapplications of charity property. It then addresses the comparatively modern issue of the governmental co-optation of charitable resources, considering to what extent modern pressures associated with the retrenchment of welfare states threaten to destabilize charity law’s hybrid equilibrium in EW and Canada. The thesis then turns to the emerging phenomenon of social enterprise, arguing that shifts to charity law’s functional equilibrium may explain the emergence of this ‘post-charitable’ legal form. The thesis concludes with some observations on the hybrid nature of the law of charities, and on the different functional equilibriums between individual project pursuit and collective project pursuit that have been reached by English and Canadian charity law.

Darbo tikslas. Įvertinti burnos higienistų, dirbančių Kauno miesto privačiose ir viešosiose odontologijos klinikose, darbo organizavimo ypatumus. Tyrimo metodika. Atlikta momentinė anoniminė Kauno miesto burnos higienistų anketinė apklausa. Išdalinta 70 anketų: 56 dirbantiems privačiose ir 14 viešosiose odontologijos klinikose. Anketas užpildė ir grąžino 45 privačiose (atsako dažnis 80,3 proc.) ir 14 viešosiose (atsako dažnis 100 proc.) klinikose dirbantys burnos higienistai. Statistinė duomenų analizė buvo atliekama naudojant SPSS 17 for Windows programinį paketą. Hipotezėms tikrinti buvo naudojama aprašomoji statistika bei Chi kvadrato (χ2 ), t ir Mann-Whitney kriterijai. Rezultatai. Dažniausiai odontologijos klinikose atliekamos burnos higienistų procedūros: burnos higienos mokymas (100 proc.), dantų akmenų šalinimas ultragarsu (100 proc.) bei rankiniais instrumentais (93,2 proc.). Dažniausiai aptarnaujami jauni (19-35 metų) bei vidutinio amžiaus (36-55 metų) pacientai. Rečiausiai – vaikai ar paaugliai iki 18 metų (22,8 proc.), neįgalūs pacientai. Privačiose įstaigose dirbantys burnos higienistai dažniau nei viešosiose dirba dar ir odontologo asistentu (atitinkamai 62,2 ir 21,4 proc.). Viešose įstaigose dažniau nei privačiose dirba mokslinį darbą (14,3 proc) arba dėstytojauja (2,4 proc.). Beveik absoliuti dauguma (93,2 proc.) respondentų linkę manyti, kad geriau burnos higienistu dirbti privačioje įstaigoje dėl geresnių darbo sąlygų, darbo vietos organizavimo (87,3 ir 63,6... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Aim of the study. To evaluate the dental hygienists work organization peculiarities in private and public dental clinics in Kaunas city. Methods. An anonymous questionnaire have been completed in private and public dental clinics in Kaunas city. In total 70 questionnaires were distributed to employed dental hygienists: 56 in private and 14 in public dental clinics in Kaunas. Questionnaires filled out and returned: 45 dental hygienists employed in private (response rate 80,3 %) and 14 in public dental clinics (response rate 100 %). The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 17 for Windows statistical software . Hypotheses were checked using descriptive statistics and Chi square (χ2), t and Mann-Whitney criterions. Results. Most frequently dental hygienists performed oral treatments in dental clinics such as oral hygiene education and training (100 %), scaling (100 %) and calculus removal using hand instruments (93.2 % ). Most dental hygienist served young (19-35 years) and middle-aged (36-55 years) patients. Least - working with children or adolescents under 18 years old (22.8 %), with disabled patients. Dental hygienists in private dental institutions more than in public works as a dental assistant (respectively 62.2 and 21.4 %) Meanwhile, in public dental institutions dental hygienist more than in private work in research work (14.3% ) and as academics (2.4 %). Majority (93.2%) of respondents tend to believe that is better to work as a dental hygienist in... [to full text]

v AJ The thesis addresses funding of public universities in the Czech Republic. It describes, analyzes and assesses the current method of university funding from public and other resources and points out the most important issues in this area. A part of the study is devoted to the topic of introducing tuition fees as one of the possible methods of students' participation on the university's funding. The study provides arguments for and against such measure and proposes a solution on how to apply it in the Czech Republic. In relation to that, the focus is also posed on financial aid to students, specifically student savings for education and student loans on tuition fees without which the introduction of such measure is difficult to imagine. Criteria which the system providing loans to students should account for are considered and further other possible alternatives of the system are introduced and assessed. The final section presents several possibilities from which public universities may obtain funding beyond the basic framework of the state budget.

Thesis is focused on the analysis of the application Public Private Partnership within the financing of public infrastructures projects. Public infrastructure financing has traditionally lain in the domain of public sector. A tightening of many countries' budgets recently has led to an exploration of alternative resources for financing transport infrastructure as e.g. PPP. The aim of the thesis is to compare or evaluate which form of financing (PPP or using only public finance esp. issue of public bonds) is more effective. The thesis is separate into 2 important parts, theoretical and practical. The theoretical part of the thesis provides the general description of PPP projects, international experiences and about the legal and institutional framework within the EU and Czech Republic. Practical part of the thesis is focused on the main advantages and disadvantages of PPP projects. Here is also part devoted to the financial models using for the comparison which form of financing (PPP or traditional public procurement) is more efficient. Conclusion of the thesis summarizes the gained findings and also assesses which form of financing is more efficient.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-27T13:54:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ITALA MARIA ALCANTARA.pdf: 714504 bytes, checksum: e0c68b950ca0e880f26bbf1c0091f5c7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-02-26 / This work arms to study the representations of elementary school teachers of the Municipal Education Goiania on public and private education, and on these representations in the quality of work done in school. It therefore seeks to unravel the meaning and implications of these representations and their close relations with the work done in school. Achieve a goal like that assumed in the beginning, the theoretical understanding of the concept of public and private, and simultaneously the understanding that these individuals have on these notions, to then consider whether such understanding affects the quality of work done in school. Preliminary readings on this point Coutinho, (2005); Gold, (2001); Faleiro, (1999) allowed the preparation of the work that has been deepened through the study of those authors and others Arendt (2005); Ghiraldelli (2000); Saviani, (2005); Silva Jr. (2002); Ribeiro, (2000), for writing the first chapter of the dissertation. Assumed, also, the involvement of research subjects with the organization of the work developed in schools where teachers act which implies, for that matter, their involvement with the construction of the Political-Pedagogical Project from the schools where they work. This reflection was the goal of the second chapter of the dissertation, based especially on: Bondioli (1996); Paro (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002); Vasconcelos, (2000); Veiga, (1998, 2001, 2003, 2004). The last chapter deals specifically with representations of research subjects, in other words, of the analysis, interpretation and understanding of the speeches of the research subjects, obtained by means of semi-structured in-depth interviews. The main authors which motivated this study were Contreras, (2002); Tardif, (2005). In general terms, the investigative process has also, gone through the understanding of the relationships that link the theoretical discussion about the notion of public and private school organization and through the Political-Pedagogical Project. This research falls within the qualitative research that emphasizes "more" process than the product of research. Being conducted by the research literature (books, theses, articles, etc.). Documental (PPP schools), and field research (natural environment) were located the subjects in their natural environment of work (School-I; School -II-III School). Was used as criteria: the simultaneous teaching in public and private schools. The technical resources were conversations with teachers from those schools and field notes. It is hoped that the results of this investigation enter, critically, in the extended dialogue about the teaching practices developed in the public schools and in discussions that focus on training and qualifications of RME of Goiania, where the author of this study acts as a pedagogue. / Este trabalho tem como objeto de estudo as representações dos professores do ensino fundamental da Rede Municipal de Educação de Goiânia sobre o ensino público e o ensino privado, e sobre a qualidade do trabalho da escola. Visa, portanto, desvendar o sentido e as implicações que essas representações encerram e suas relações com a qualidade do trabalho da escola. Leituras preliminares sobre esse ponto - Coutinho, (2005), Dourado, (2001), Faleiro, (1999) - permitiram a elaboração do trabalho, que foi paulatinamente aprofundado por meio do estudo de outros autores. Arendt (2005), Ghiraldelli (2000), Saviani, (2005), Silva Jr. (2002), Ribeiro, (2000). A reflexão propiciada pelo conjunto dos autores citados deu origem ao conteúdo exposto no primeiro capítulo. Pressupôs, também, o envolvimento dos sujeitos da pesquisa com a organização do trabalho desenvolvido nas escolas em que atuam como docentes o que, por sua vez, implica o envolvimento deles com a construção do Projeto Político-Pedagógico (PPP) das escolas em que trabalham. Esta reflexão constituiu o objetivo do segundo capítulo da dissertação, fundamentada, especialmente, em Bondioli (1996), Paro (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002), Vasconcelos (2000), Veiga (1998, 2001, 2003, 2004). O último capítulo trata especificamente das representações, ou seja, da análise, compreensão e interpretação das falas dos sujeitos da pesquisa, obtidas por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas aprofundadas. Os autores principais que fundamentaram este estudo foram: Contreras (2002) e Tardif (2005). No plano geral, o processo investigativo passou, ainda, pela compreensão dos vínculos que articulam a discussão teórica sobre a noção de público e de privado e a organização da escola por meio do PPP. Esta pesquisa se inscreve no âmbito da pesquisa qualitativa, que enfativa "mais" (sem deixar de levar em conta a importância da qualidade dos resultados) o processo do que o produto da investigação. Foi realizada pela pesquisa bibliográfica (livros, teses, artigos, etc.); pesquisa documental (PPP das escolas); e pesquisa de campo. Esperou-se, com os resultados desta investigação, entrar, de modo crítico, no diálogo ampliado sobre as práticas pedagógicas desenvolvidas nas escolas públicas e em discussões que focalizam a formação e qualificação dos professores da RME de Goiânia, onde a autora deste trabalho atua como pedagoga.

La question de la biodiversité apparue au premier plan des préoccupations environnementales au même titre que le changement climatique a fait l'objet au niveau mondial d'une volumineuse littérature et de nombreux rapports alarmistes. Selon que l'on regarde la question du point de vue des sciences de la vie ou des sciences sociales on dispose de vues complémentaires mais aussi contradictoires. On envisage la question de la biodiversité en particulier méditerranéenne sous l'angle de sa gestion territoriale axée sur l'étude comparative de plusieurs cas localisés au sein d'espaces marqués par d'intenses interactions hommes-milieux où la prise en compte de cet enjeu est questionnée dans un contexte décisionnel conflictuel. Cette thèse porte sur le management territorial et sur l'approche de la biodiversité qui ressort des pratiques en rapport de l'état de la biodiversité, des phénomènes qui la menacent. On confronte ce savoir avec les pratiques managériales quand celles-ci sont contraintes par des événements conflictuels révélant les valeurs de multiples parties prenantes. On en déduit trois modèles de relations « Homme-Nature » et les implications de régulation qui en découlent et on fait ressortir les paradoxes des politiques publiques orientées sur la biodiversité. On montre alors le caractère déterminant de ces modèles, explicites et implicites, mobilisés par les décideurs aux niveaux individuel et institutionnel. On apporte ainsi un éclairage à la faiblesse de l'institutionnalisation de l'enjeu de la biodiversité, balbutiante. Ceci nous amène à fournir des recommandations pour une intégration de cet enjeu dans les pratiques managériales tant publiques que privées / The issue of biodiversity has been at the forefront of environmental concerns in the same way as climate change, and has been the subject of a voluminous literature and numerous alarmist reports worldwide. Depending on whether one looks at the question from the point of view of the life sciences or the social sciences one has complementary but also contradictory views. The issue of biodiversity, particularly in the Mediterranean, is considered from the angle of its territorial management, which focuses on the comparative study of several localized cases in areas marked by intense interactions between men and the environment, where the consideration for this issue is questioned in a conflictual decision-making context. This thesis deals with territorial management and the approach to biodiversity that emerges from practices related to the state of biodiversity, the phenomena that threaten it. This knowledge is confronted with managerial practices when they are constrained by conflicting events revealing the values of multiple stakeholders. We deduce three models of « Man-Nature » relationships and the regulatory implications that arise from them, and we highlight the paradoxes of public policies oriented towards biodiversity. We then show the determinative nature of these explicit and implicit models, mobilized by decision makers at the individual and institutional levels. This brings to light the weakness of the institutionalization of the issue of biodiversity, stammering. This leads us to provide recommendations for the integration of this issue into managerial practices, both public and private

Nous abordons dans un premier chapitre la question de l'équivalence entre le CAP et le CAR. La disparité entre les deux indices a de profondes conséquences sur les prises de décision environnementales. Si la disparité était au départ associée aux carences de la méthode de mise en œuvre des enquêtes, les racines du problème s'avèrent être sensiblement plus profondes. Eu égard à l'évaluation des biens publics, nous pensons que la disparité est due à la substituabilité imparfaite entre les biens privés et publiques, ainsi qu'en raison de perceptions différenciées des agents économiques entre gains et pertes. C'est à cette problématique que le premier chapitre se consacre. Ainsi, le Chapitre 1 traite de la disparité entre les indices CAP et CAR dans l'évaluation hors-marché. Dans la littérature, l'effet de substitution et l'effet de dotation sont tenus responsables de l'existence des disparités. Nous montrons que la substituabilité imparfaite dans la fonction d'utilité indirecte peut provoquer la disparité soit entre le CAP et le CAR - en raison du coût d'opportunité -, soit entre les gains et les pertes, où il s'agit d'évaluer une perte sèche. La mesure en termes relatifs accentue la substituabilité imparfaite, mais l'effet de substitution est borné dans le modèle d'aversion aux pertes. Ce premier chapitre prépare le terrain pour le Chapitre 2, où nous évaluons un vrai bien public dans un contexte d'enchères expérimentales. Les offres d'achat et de vente reflètent le CAP et le CAR, d'où leur importance. L'effet de dotation et le choix du meilleur mécanisme d'enchères y sont examinés. Les études en enchères expérimentales jusqu'ici menées ont porté sur des biens privés non marchands ; elles sont supposées divulguer ce qui se passerait en présence de biens publics, car il est a priori difficile d'envisager une expérience où le bien public est échangé. Nous y parvenons. Nous n'employons pas de valeurs induites mais laissons libre cours aux valeurs autoproduites par les sujets d'étude recrutés pour l'occasion. L'étude nous permet de vérifier si, sur des marchés simulés, bien privé non marchand et bien public sont évalués de manière identique. Ainsi, nous évaluons l'impact de trois mécanismes d'enchère - le mécanisme Becker-DeGroot-Marschak (BDM), l'enchère au deuxième prix, et l'enchère aléatoire au nième prix - dans l'évaluation des CAP et CAR privés d'un bien public pur. Nos résultats montrent que l'effet de dotation peut être éliminé en répétant le mécanisme BDM. Néanmoins, à l'échelle logarithmique, l'enchère aléatoire au nième prix donne la vitesse de convergence vers l'égalité des indices de bien-être la plus élevée. Plus généralement, nous observons que les sujets d'étude évaluent les biens publics en se référant à l'avantage privé et subjectif qui résulte du financement du bien public. Par la suite, le Chapitre 3 discute de la sincérité des préférences en enchères expérimentales répétées et traite des propriétés incitatives des mécanismes BDM et l'enchère aléatoire au nième prix. Une propriété des mécanismes d'enchères est la compatibilité avec les incitations, dans laquelle un offreur a une stratégie faiblement dominante de soumettre une offre égale à sa valeur. Il a été prouvé que les deux mécanismes sont compatibles avec les incitations. En évaluation, on répète des sessions d'enchères pour donner aux offreurs l'opportunité d'apprendre le mécanisme de marché : leur donner du temps pour révéler leurs préférences. Or, ce procédé les contre-incite à adapter leurs préférences en fonction des prix publiquement signalés, si bien qu'il crée un risque de licitation stratégique (par opposition aux offres sincères). Si les offreurs s'engagent dans des stratégies déviantes pour faire face à l'incertitude sur la valeur du bien public, les mécanismes d'enchères perdent leur propriété de compatibilité avec les incitations et révèlent de fausses préférences. Lorsque les prix dépendent des offres soumises, c'est-à-dire en présence de mécanismes de marché répétés avec prix de compensation endogènes, l'hypothèse de l'indépendance des valeurs privées - sous-jacente à la compatibilité avec les incitations - est remise en question ; même si ce type de mécanismes fournit une participation active et un apprentissage du marché. Dans sa vision orthodoxe, le comportement marchand d'adaptation met en péril la compatibilité avec les incitations. Nous introduisons un modèle qui montre que les enchérisseurs licitent suivant l'heuristique d'ancrage et d'ajustement, dépendante d'une fonction de pondération séquentielle, laquelle prend en compte les contraintes de compatibilité avec les incitations sans rejeter les prix signalés issus des autres offres. En déviant de leur ancrage dans le sens du signal public, les enchérisseurs opèrent dans un équilibre corrélé. Comme le prouve l'expérience du Chapitre 2, les contributions privées aux biens publics sont issues d'une démarche d'évaluation. Elles sont conduites aussi bien par des incitations asociales que sociales. Si l'offre privée du bien public est stimulée à la fois par une rationalité qui dicte de ne pas contribuer au bien public et de profiter de l'effort fourni par la collectivité, et par l'appétit pour la reconnaissance sociale qui incite à se faire publiquement connaître en tant que généreux donateur, laquelle des deux motivations domine ? Le Chapitre 4 fait ainsi la comparaison entre déculpabilisation et compétition pour le statut social dans la provision privée des biens publics. Lorsque les agents sont intrinsèquement impulsés, c'est-à-dire qu'ils contribuent essentiellement aux biens publics dans le but de soulager leur culpabilité d'avoir indirectement participé à leur dégradation, ils tendent à se comporter en passagers clandestins. En revanche, lorsque les agents sont extrinsèquement impulsés et se mettent en compétition pour atteindre du statut social qu'ils visent par le financement des biens publics à titre privé, leurs contributions deviennent des compléments stratégiques. Dans ce cas, le niveau agrégé des biens publics croît avec la réduction des écarts de revenus entre les agents. Injecter de la compétition pour le statut social dans des fonctions d'utilité augmente les contributions aux biens publics, et donc leur niveau global, faisant de la concurrence une incitation féconde pour résoudre le problème du passager clandestin.