我們身處於一個充滿風險的社會。金融海嘯、核能危機、全球暖化、食品問題等，在說明社會步向現代化的後遺症，正如何為人類帶來更難預測的風險，並無孔不入般影響我們的日常生活(Beck, 1992)。在這理論基礎上，本文將探究新聞製作於建構風險的角色，並提出一個名為「客觀化」(objectification) 的過程---新聞媒體如何在科學專家的意見眾說紛紜、對風險難有最終定案之下，把有關社會風險的新聞論述詮釋為客觀的社會事實。我尤其探討風險範例的建構---一些有關風險的新聞事件其後演變為重要範例，並影響日後類似事件的新聞論述。 / 為求以實證方法探究風險「合理化」的過程，我將以香港(中華人民共和國的特別行政區) 的新聞論述如何回應2009年全球豬流感危機作為案例。豬流感是香港經歷2003年非典型肺炎危機(又稱「沙士」) 的重創後，首次面對的全球疫症危機。香港新聞如何呈現豬流感疫情，亦深受「沙士」時的歷史回憶、經驗及後遺所影響。故此，這案例有助我研究風險範例於風險「合理化」時的作用。我從香港報章隨機抽樣出有關豬流感的新聞論述的樣本，並透過內容分析和文本分析，研究香港新聞如何敍述豬流感危機，以及相關敍述所包含的意識形態。我亦走訪了當年採訪豬流感新聞的新聞工作者、有份向傳媒提供專家意見的醫學專家、以及負責制定香港政府防控豬流感政策的官員，以了解建構豬流感風險背後的社會互動。 / 本文的研究顯示，香港有關豬流感危機的新聞論述，是如何奠基於「沙士」這風險範例而建構。豬流感起來襲初時，新聞論述廣泛地藉「沙士」的經驗去詮釋豬流感可能帶給香港的後果。新聞工作者於「沙士」時的採訪經歷，亦成為他們報道豬流感新聞時尋找醫學專家意見的參照經驗，尤其是當醫學專家意見紛紜、新聞工作者要判斷誰人的意見較有權威去界定健康風險之時。本文主要闡述新聞的建構於社會回應風險時所起的關鍵作用，從而帶出這於風險社會理論、以及當我們探究新聞媒體及傳播於現代風險社會的角色時，仍未受足夠重視的重要層面。 / We are witnessing the formation of a risk society, with financial instability, nuclear catastrophes, global warming, and food crises, and just to give a few examples, becoming parts of our everyday life in an age of risk characterized by uncertainties stemming from system failure of modernization (Beck, 1992). In the light of this theoretical concern, in this study I shall scrutinize how news making plays its role in the construction of risk. This, I suggest, is a process of risk objectification ---how news media justifies its discourse of social risk by making social facts upon uncertainties and inconclusive scientific opinions. Specifically, I shall focus on the creation of risk exemplar. That is, some news events become critical exemplar that would shape the news construction of subsequent crises of similar sources. / To look into the process of risk objectification empirically, I shall examine what were the main features of the news discourse in Hong Kong, a Special Administrative Region of China, in reaction to the global health crisis of Swine Flu in 2009. Swine Flu was the first pandemic crisis encountered by Hong Kong after its devastating suffering from the epidemic of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2003. The news representation of Swine Flu was influenced by the historical memory, experience and legacies of SARS and this helps illustrate how risk exemplar contributes to risk legitimization. I carried out content and textual analysis respectively on a random sample of Hong Kong’s newspapers for the purpose of analyzing the key narrations of Swine Flu and the underlying ideological packages of such narrations. I also conducted in-depth interviews with journalists, medical experts and public officials who were deeply involved in the news making of Swine Flu so as to uncover the social dynamics in the process of risk construction. / Key findings of this thesis highlight how the health crisis of Swine Flu was staged by the risk exemplar of SARS. Experience of SARS was widely drawn upon for making sense of the potential impacts of Swine Flu when it first broke out. It was also the key reference for journalists when seeking expert advices, particularly when identifying those who are more authoritative among different opinions in defining the nature of the risk. It is my argument that news making plays a critical role in the shaping of the social reactions to a risk. My analysis thus adds an important, but somehow unduly neglected, dimension to theory of risk society and our understanding of the role of news media and communication in contemporary risk society. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Chan, Chi Kit. / Thesis (Ph.D.) Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 240-250). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Chan, Chi Kit.

Etude historique des conditions d’émergence du champ de recherches de la perception des risques ;analyse critique du paradigme psychométrique et de la théorie culturaliste, ainsi que des conceptions du risque qui les sous-tend. /<p>Historical study of the emergence conditions of risk perception as a research field; critical analysis of the psychometric paradigm and cultural theory, as well as of the underlying risk conceptions. / Doctorat en Philosophie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The diploma thesis "Gender differences in risk attitude among Czech high school students" discusses how people deal with risk in everyday life. The first part of the paper investigates the forming of risk perception, and the factors that influence the process. Social and cultural structures are of high importance, but also individual factors (such as gender or personal experiences) as well as media representation matter. Risk perception plays a key role in decision-making in situations dealing with uncertainty and the paper asserts that it is possible to model risk behaviour and make predictions accordingly. The second part of the paper presents research on risk attitudes among Czech high school students. It deals with gender differences and students' willingness to risk in three key domains: social, health and leisure time. The model used in the paper focuses on students' willingness to participate in a given activity, their perception of the probability of negative outcomes, and the degree of pleasure derived from the activity. Research indicates that a) men are more willing to risk in health and leisure time related activities, whereas women are more daring in social activities; b) students coming from academically oriented schools are more willing to risk in social activities than students...

In 2012, the county of Uppland in Sweden launched a service granting patients online access to their electronic medical record (EMR), including the list of staff who have logged into the record (the “log list”). Patients seem predominantly positive to this service whereas many professionals, physicians specifically, have expressed concerns about, for example, increased risks of threats and violence towards healthcare staff. One year after launch the present study was conducted to examine whether staff whose patients had gained access to online EMRs experienced greater risks of threats and violence, and were exposed to more threats and violence, than those whose patients had not yet gained access. The extent to which professional role, gender, work experience and staff attitudes to the service were important factors was also examined. A total of 174 professionals at Uppsala University Hospital responded to a web survey (35% response rate). 83 represented the emergency department, whose patients had online EMR access, and 91 represented the psychiatric department, whose patients had not. 40% of all participating professionals, emergency physicians and psychiatric staff specifically, believed that risks of threats and violence increase after launch. The results did not, however, support a correlation between patient access to online EMRs and more incidents of threats and violence, and only one respondent reported that patient access had played any significant negative role in relation to an incident. These and other results may prove useful as the online EMR service is now being launched in other Swedish counties as well. / År 2012 infördes inom Uppsala läns landsting en tjänst som ger patienter tillgång till sin journal via nätet, inklusive listan över personal som loggat in i journalen. Patienter har visat sig vara övervägande positiva till tjänsten, medan många vårdgivare, speciellt läkare, har uttryckt farhågor gällandes, till exempel, ökad risk för hot och våld mot vårdpersonal. Ett år efter införandet genomfördes denna enkätstudie med syfte att undersöka om sjukvårdspersonal vars patienter fått tillgång till journal via nätet upplever högre grad av risk för hot och våld samt om de i realiteten är mer utsatta för hot och våld än dem vars patienter inte fått denna tillgång. Även betydelsen av yrke, kön, arbetserfarenhet samt generell attityd till journal via nätet undersöktes i relation till hot och våldsrisker respektive utsatthet för våld. En webundersökning besvarades av 174 anställda vid Akademiska sjukhuset i Uppsala (svarsfrekvens 35 %). 83 representerade den öppna akutvårdsmottagningen, vars patienter hade tillgång till journal via nätet, och 91 representerade de slutenvårdspsykiatriska avdelningarna, vars patienter inte hade denna tillgång. 40 % av respondenterna, speciellt akutvårdsläkare och psykiatrivårdspersonal, trodde att riskerna för hot och våld ökar vid införande av journal via nätet. Resultaten påvisade dock inte någon korrelation mellan patienttillgång till journal via nätet och förekomst av hot- och våldsincidenter och endast en respondent svarade att patienttillgång spelat en betydande negativ roll i relation till en incident. Dessa och andra resultat i studien kan vara av betydelse nu när införanden av journal via nätet sprids även till andra landsting i Sverige.

Thesis (MComm (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / The market share of online purchasing is under two percent of total retail spending, which provides an indication that consumers have been slow to adopt online purchasing. Previous research has shown that consumers perceive risks associated with purchasing online and these perceptions are likely to affect purchase intention. Little research, however, has been done on perceived risk relating specifically to online purchasing, and in particular, risk related to branded and non-branded retailer websites. Research has shown that brand knowledge has a direct effect on a consumer’s intention to purchase from an online retailer and that this relationship between brand knowledge and intent to purchase online is mediated by perceived risk. The purpose of this exploratory study was therefore to investigate the consumer-perceived risks associated with the intention to purchase online. The research problem considered the question whether the perceived risks (financial, performance, physical, time, social and psychological risks) associated with a branded website (Kalahari.net) are different from the perceived risks associated with a non-branded website (Books.com). It was found that four types of perceived risk exist namely, performance, time, social, and personal risk. Of these risks, only performance risk had an influence on a consumer’s purchase intention from a non-branded website whereas performance and personal risk influenced a consumer’s intention to purchase from a branded website. It was also revealed that consumers perceive performance, time, and social risk as not statistically different when purchasing from a non-branded or a branded website. However, personal risk was perceived to be statistically differently for the two websites. In addition, the brand image dimension of brand knowledge had an influence on a consumer’s purchase intention from both the branded and non-branded websites. The brand awareness dimension of brand knowledge did not influence purchase intention at all. For all four risk types on both the branded and nonbranded websites (except social risk on Books.com), at least one and in some cases, both dimensions of brand knowledge influenced the degree of perceived risk associated with purchasing on the particular website. Finally, it was concluded that the more information search a consumer does before purchase of a book on a branded or non-branded website, the higher their perceived risk associated with purchasing from the particular website. A number of recommendations were made. Methods for decreasing the amount of performance risk which consumers perceive when purchasing a book online were firstly suggested. It was further recommended that Kalahari.net investigate the dimensions of their brand such as brand image, brand awareness, and brand trust, to identify the reasons why consumers perceive performance, social and time risk as being not statistically different when purchasing on a branded and a non-branded website. Since consumers did not see a difference between the brand image of the branded and the non-branded websites, it was recommended that the branded website make every effort to investigate their current branding strategy to identify the reasons consumers view the branded website in the same manner as the non-branded website. Furthermore, since both dimensions of brand knowledge influenced the degree of perceived risk associated with purchasing on the particular website to a certain extent, it was recommended that online retailers focus on building familiarity, positive thoughts, feelings, associations, and beliefs concerning the online retailer brand. Finally, it was recommended that the influence of information search online on perceived risk associated with purchasing be further investigated; because this study found that an action that was traditionally initiated as a means for decreasing perceived risk can now be attributed to increased consumer-perceived risk associated with online shopping.

Etude historique des conditions d’émergence du champ de recherches de la perception des risques ; analyse critique du paradigme psychométrique et de la théorie culturaliste, ainsi que des conceptions du risque qui les sous-tend. / Historical study of the emergence conditions of risk perception as a research field; critical analysis of the psychometric paradigm and cultural theory, as well as of the underlying risk conceptions.

本研究以博士倫2006與2007年發生的兩次藥水回收事件為例，以五國的媒體抽樣報導為研究對象，結合深度訪談法，歸納分析媒體報導中呈現之五國博士倫公司風險認知、五國關鍵關係人之風險認知，並比較上述兩者間之差異。其後，以雙方之風險認知、證據真實性和媒體環境做為前置變項，對博士倫危機溝通策略運用之影響，進行理論的回應與探討，並以股價、媒體正負面報導等指標檢視該公司於兩事件中的危機溝通成效。最後，就研究發現，提出對實務面與未來研究方向之建議，期盼能予後續研究者進行跨國企業危機溝通策略時之參考。 一、 風險認知對於危機溝通策略的影響 本研究發現，五國關鍵關係人之風險認知、組織本身之風險認知及兩者之差異，對於博士倫之危機溝通策略運用並無影響。除了新加坡關鍵關係人的風險認知為「監管單位發佈資訊」之外，香港、中國大陸、台灣及美國關係人之風險認知，前兩名均為「風險是否涉及毒害」或「企業的形象與信譽」，縱使四國關係人與博士倫重視的屬性有先後階段的不同，然而並不影響博士倫之危機溝通策略運用。MoistureLoc事件中，五國最重要的關鍵關係人皆為「政府監管單位」。 二、 證據真實性、媒體環境對於危機溝通策略的影響 本研究發現，博士倫五國之溝通策略演變，皆以美國總公司為中心，由「否認」策略移至「辨明」策略，再趨向「讓步」策略，並有同一時期呈現言語與行為策略「不一致」之情形。策略的主要依據為「證據的真實性」，包括美國官方機構所公佈的病例數據或是博士倫自行調查的結果。此外，綜合內容分析與訪談結果，本研究認為媒體環境對於企業的危機溝通策略會造成影響，而影響的程度以新加坡、香港與台灣較美國與中國大陸明顯。 三、 兩次事件危機溝通策略之比較 綜合本研究結果，美國博士倫於MultiPlus事件的處理策略，具有前一次MoistureLoc事件所沒有的特點，包括：1. 在最短時間內掌握危機狀況，積極反應；2. 迅速公佈處理情形；3. 發言人取得媒體信賴；4. 危機時間短，媒體報導篇幅少；5. 取得議題建構主動權。故博士倫於MultiPlus事件中，聲譽面及財務面皆未受影響，與前次事件相較，已然從危機中汲取經驗，可謂正面的危機學習。 關鍵詞：關鍵關係人、風險認知、危機溝通策略、證據真實性、媒體報導

社會工作者處於人身安全高度危險的工作環境中，國內相關的研究卻不豐富。本研究以處在高風險工作環境中的社會工作者為對象，瞭解他們目前遭受案主暴力對待的現況、回應方式，及對暴力風險的知覺情形。研究以郵寄問卷方式進行，資料蒐集範圍包括臺北市家庭暴力暨性侵害防治中心、各區社會福利服務中心、區域級以上醫療及精神醫療院所，發出231份問卷，回收有效問卷共計165份，回收率為71.43％。 首先，研究發現81.8％的社會工作者生涯中曾遭受某種形式的暴力攻擊，其中心理傷害80.6％、身體傷害16.4％、財產損害26.1％，經常發生的地點在「辦公處所」。研究尚發現44％的社工員經驗到多種形式的暴力，更有72％經驗到一次以上，顯見案主的暴力威脅並非偶發事件，高風險領域社會工作者確實面臨案主暴力威脅；邏輯迴歸分析發現，機構年資不長、工作經驗較短者面對暴力的可能性較高。其次，平均而言工作者身體風險知覺較心理及財務風險知覺為高，進一步以迴歸分析發現，尚未取得證照、保護性服務工作者、機構年資低、工作經驗較短者其風險意識較高。第三，受暴經驗與風險知覺有關，過去曾有受暴經驗的社工員整體風險知覺較高。最後，有關正式通報的情形，百分之五十七點四的受訪者表示遭遇心理傷害時會通報、受身體傷害和財務損害者則有近八成會通報，受到「形而外且具體」傷害時呈報上級的情形則更為普遍。 研究建議如下：實務上，機構應有清楚的政策及通報流程以增加暴力事件的可見度、提供員工情緒支持及教育訓練以提昇工作者風險意識及減緩工作恐懼感；工作者本身應改變信念並增加實務工作知能，避免將暴力事件地下化、私有化，及強化與案主工作時的應對技巧。另外，在教育養成上應有更多人身安全的訓練與關注，以避免社會工作學生因過度擔心阻礙其投入職場的信心。最後，政府政策應針對第一線人身安全高風險的社工員給予實質性保障、儘速將人身安全納入社工師法或專門立法，強調暴力「零容忍」的相關政策，以維護社工人員的尊嚴與生命安全。 / Although social workers are at risk of client violence in the workplace, little research on the situation has been done in Taiwan. The present study surveyed 165 social workers practicing in high risk fields in Taipei in terms of their experiences, reaction, and perception of client violence. The following are the findings. First, a prevalence rate of client violence (81.8％) was found. About eighty percent of social workers had experienced some type of psychological assault by clients during their work. Physical attack was reported by 27 workers (16.4％). Property damage was reported by 43 workers (26.1％). In multiple logistic regression, psychological assault was associated with two variables—less seniority and less social work experience. Second, on the average, scores of physical risk perception was much higher than the other two perceptions. Multiple regression showed that workers who were less senior, worked at protection service, with less social work experience, or without license, had higher scores of risk perception. Third, a significant positive correlation existed between client violence and risk perception. Finally, results indicated that only 57.4％ of the subjects who suffered psychological assault had decided to report their experience formally. On the contrary, nearly eighty percent would report when they encountered physical attack or property damage – especially external and concrete harm. Implications for practice, training and policy were discussed.

L‟utilité de la théorie de la dissuasion est régulièrement remise en question pour expliquer la relation entre les peines et la criminalité puisque les propriétés objectives de la peine ne semblent pas affecter les taux de criminalité, les perceptions que s‟en font les individus et la récidive des délinquants. Trois limites conceptuelles des auteurs qui remettent en question la dissuasion sont soulevées. Premièrement, les unités spatiales utilisées sont des territoires sur lesquels plusieurs corps policiers sont en fonction. Il y a donc peu de chances que tous les citoyens présents soient exposés au même message pénal. Deuxièmement, les chercheurs ont mesuré le risque objectif d‟être arrêté à l‟aide d‟un ratio entre le nombre d‟arrestations et le nombre de crimes rapportés. Cette conceptualisation est problématique puisque les résultats d‟autres études suggèrent que les citoyens ont peu de connaissances des propriétés objectives et qu‟il serait, ainsi, intéressant de se référer aux stimuli dissuasifs pour conceptualiser la notion de risques. Troisièmement, pour plusieurs chercheurs, la délinquance est considérée comme une activité pour laquelle les délits impunis découlent du hasard. Pourtant, les délinquants utilisent fréquemment des stratégies pour éviter les autorités policières. Ils sont donc proactifs dans leur impunité. De ces limites découlent quatre propositions : 1) afin de détecter les réels effets des propriétés de la peine sur la criminalité, les territoires utilisés dans les études doivent représenter des juridictions sur lesquelles un seul corps policier opère; 2) afin de détecter les réels effets des propriétés de la peine sur la criminalité, les études doivent être effectuées avec des données provenant d‟une juridiction dans laquelle les activités de répression sont augmentées significativement par rapport à leur seuil antérieur et maintenue sur une période de temps suffisamment longue; 3) les stimuli dissuasifs observés doivent être considérés comme des expériences vicariantes ; 4) l‟impunité doit être définie comme étant une expérience recherchée par les délinquants. Deux études ont été réalisées dans le cadre de cette thèse. D‟abord, une étude a été réalisée à l‟aide de données issues des rapports policiers de collisions et des constats d‟infraction rendus. Les résultats montrent que l‟augmentation de la répression policière ii sur le territoire du Service de Police de la Ville de Montréal a fait diminuer le nombre de collisions. Au même moment, les collisions sont demeurées stables sur le territoire desservis par le Service de police de la Ville de Québec. Dans un deuxième temps, une étude perceptuelle a été réalisée avec un échantillon d‟étudiants universitaires. Les résultats démontrent des effets mitigés des stimuli dissuasifs sur les perceptions que se font les individus de leurs risques d‟être arrêté et sur leurs comportements délinquants. Chez les moins délinquants, les stimuli dissuasifs font augmenter la perception que les délinquants se font de leurs risques. Par contre, les plus motivés à commettre des délits de la route développent des stratégies en réaction aux opérations policières plutôt que d‟en craindre les représailles. Ces tactiques d‟évitement n‟assurent pas une impunité totale, ni une perception moins élevée des risques de recevoir une contravention, mais elles retardent le moment où le délinquant sera confronté à la punition. / Deterrence theory has been rightfully challenged when changes in punishment probability or severity had no impact on crime rates, recidivism or risks' perception. We suggest that these unconclusive results are, in large part, caused by theoretical and conceptual flaws. First, changes in objective properties of punishment are assumed to be equally perceived across multiple spatial units or police jurisdictions. We have reason to believe that this is rarely the case. Second, the objective risks of being arrested are generally measured with a ratio between the number of arrests and the number of crimes reported. This conceptualization is problematic because numerous researchers found that people have little knowledge of these objective properties. Third, deterrence research have limited interest for adaptative strategies used by offenders to counteract the perceived increase in punishment severity or certainty. We believe that offenders' actively seek and adopt these avoidance tactics. Four propositions are developed to adress thoses limits: 1) to detect the potential local or micro effects of punishment on crime, different police jurisdictions are analysed separatly; 2) to detect the potential effects of punishment on crime, studies should be made only in jurisdictions where enforcement levels are objectively increasing; 3) observed deterrent stimuli should be regarded as vicarious experiences; 4) impunity must be viewed as an actively seeked experience. Two studies were conducted as part of this thesis. Using reports of crashes and statements of offense reports from the Montreal police traffic unit, the first study found that a sharp increase in the level of police activities had significant impact on the number of collisions. Over the same period, data from the second largest city in the province of Québec (the control area), showed no noticeable increase in punishment probility and consequently, no significant impact on collisions. The second study was based on the perception of risks and patterns of road delinquency for a sample of university students with a driver license. Results show distinctive effects of deterrence stimuli for drivers with different delinquency habits. For conformists drivers, the iv deterrent stimuli increase the perception of risk but had no impact on their (already low) levels of road delinquency. For the most motivated traffic offenders however, deterrence stimuli seem to motivate the use and diversity of arrest avoidance techniques that circumvent any increase in their perception of risks. These avoidance tactics do not provide total impunity but efficiently decrease punishment probabilities for those willing to maintain the same offending patterns.

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