<p>Abstract</p><p>This study investigates variable past tense marking patterns in an emerging variety of N.C. Hispanic English (n=44) spoken by language learners at three Length of Residency (LOR) groups in three schools in Durham, NC in terms of 1. lexical semantics (Andersen & Shirai 1996, Bayley 1999), 2. frequency (Guy & Erker 2012) 3. discourse structure (Bardovi-Harlig 1998) and 4. verb class and phonological environment (Wolfram 1985, Bayley 1994). Statistical results show significant effects of verb class, lexical aspect, and frequency and interacting effects of verb class and frequency (specifically, suppletives like copula are simultaneously highly frequent and highly phonetically salient). A subsample coded for the discourse factor shows some evidence for the correlation of copula and backgrounding function. A separate analysis of consonant cluster reduction patterns (CCR) demonstrates dialect acquisition of variable constraints (e.g. in terms of N.C. AAVE), namely phonological environment (_C > _V) and morphemic status (monomorpheme > bimorpheme). Pedagogical applications are discussed, including accurately identifying English Language Learners (ELLs) in the context of local/regional accommodation.</p> / Dissertation

When speakers of different language varieties come into contact with each other, one variety often becomes dominant (based on relative social, economic, and/or political prestige), even to the point where it totally supersedes the other variety. This is what has occurred in Green Point, Pennsylvania, a small rural mountain community whose members once spoke Pennsylvania Dutch (a German dialect). This language was superseded by English several decades ago, and for at least two generations residents have spoken their own variety of the language, Pennsylvania Dutchified English (PDE); today even that variety is threatened by the overpowering influences of the standard variety of English spoken in the region. In addition to briefly describing the some linguistic features of PDE, this study examines the forces behind the Pennsylvania Dutch--Pennsylvania Dutchified English--regional standard of English language shift that has taken place in this community, in two ways--first by looking carefully at the historical and economic factors that have played a role in residents' language choices in the past, and then by investigating the influence of certain social variables that may be linked to residents' choices between PDE and the regional standard today. The paper concludes with a discussion of the prospects for the survival of PDE in this area and offers some suggestions for actions that PDE speakers can take to preserve their dialect, if they choose to do so. / Department of English

To explore how children use dialect, and whether the dialectal language develops during growth might be of interest from a speech language pathologist’s point of view as the dialect could influence the child’s speech. Previous research is often based on older material and/or examines the speech of adults.  In the present study, everyday language in groups of south- eastern Swedish speaking children was investigated. The aim of the present study was to examine to what extent typically developed children of the ages of  5, 8 and 11 years use dialectal language. A further purpose was to discover which dialectal characteristics that were present in the different age groups, and how they differed. The children were video- and audiorecorded during group sessions in everyday settings. The collected material was transcribed according to principles of conversation analysis, and key portions were chosen for deeper analysis. The identified dialectal characteristics were diphthongal, distinctly open or closed vowels and regarding consonants retroflex flap [ɭ] and posterior /r/ were encountered. In prosody a final tonal raise in phrases was observed. Dialectal words and phrases and discourse markers were also documented.   The results of the present study showed that the children use dialectal language as early as by the age of 5, but that older children had a more distinguishable dialect. Throughout all age groups, the vowels were dialectally influenced. Most distinctive was a much closed /i/ with a diphthong, and characteristically open &lt;ä&gt; and &lt;ö&gt;. The characteristic final tonal raise in phrases was encountered in all age groups. Furthermore, a variation regarding dialectal use has been observed between children but also within the same child. Discourse markers were found primarily in the school-aged children, assumingly due to the increased desire of belonging to a group. The results of the present study may contribute to the ability to determine whether phonology, lexicon and/or grammar in a child is deviant or in fact reflected by the south-eastern Swedish characteristics. Also from a diagnostic perspective it might be of value to know when to expect hearing dialectal characteristics in the child’s speech.

The main goal of this thesis is to describe what happens in the collaborative approach to therapy from a conversation and discursive analytical perspective. The data we worked with are part of collaborative therapy sessions in Mexican Spanish Dialect. Chapter 1 is an introduction to two of the main social constructionist approaches to therapy, the `reflecting team approach' and the `collaborative approach' to therapy. This sets out the theoretical environment in which the therapy was done. Chapter 2 is a review of the state of the art in conversation and discourse studies on therapy talk and related fields, illustrating the type of analysis done up to now. Chapter 3 describes aspects of Mexican population that were part of the context in which the data originated; some notes on translation issues are included here. Chapter 4 is the first analytic chapter and it describes the dynamics in conversation of the English particle `okay' as found in Spanish therapeutic interaction. It shows both the work okay is doing when found in the therapists' discourse and what it is doing when found in the clients' discourse. Chapter 5 presents the analysis of instances of informality that were found in the data, arguing that aspects of an `egalitarian therapeutic stance' can be displayed in the participants' talk. Chapter 6 is a study on questions and therapy, more specifically it shows the questions that can be asked by the clients in therapy talk and the conversational job this is doing. Chapter 7 is an example of research done when taking as a starting point a category that is relevant for therapy and counselling: active listening. In reading through this thesis, the reader will find aspects of the therapeutic approach as displayed in talk. Examples of this are the displays in talk of the philosophical stance, such as being egalitarian in an institutional setting. Besides describing how theoretical assumptions can be displayed in talk, this work describes in detail several aspects of therapy talk.

This is the first typological study devoted to Medieval Cypriot (MC). The objective of the study is to provide both syntactic and pragmatic factors which are determining for the word order of the language and to open new ways to recording mechanisms of word order change. Cypriot syntax deserves this attention, as it is a language highly interesting for the typologist as for the researcher of other linguistic areas; Modern Cypriot is VOS, and exhibits a series of exceptions to the general rules of V-initial languages. Medieval Cypriot conforms to most of Greenberg�s Universals (1963) which are pertinent to type VSO in that it has V in initial position in all unmarked clauses, in that it is prepositional, that adjectives mostly follow the noun they qualify, and so on. However, the comparison of MC to Greenberg�s Universals is not the aim of this work. Apart form the order of the main constituents, this research mainly focuses on revealing mechanisms of syntactic change not generally known, and on unveiling particular traits of the Cypriot VSO order that are not common to other VSO languages. The analysis can be defined as diachronic for it deals with the language written over a span of many years, as assumed from studying the texts. Some words and structures, used in the beginning of the narrative, seem to decrease in frequency in the end, or vice versa. It is diachronic considering it also allows for comparison with later (colloquial) and earlier (written) constructions of the language. However, it is mostly a synchronic analysis; the patterns observed are from within the same language spoken by the same people living in the same period, more importantly from within the same work. Makhairas is thus the only broad evidence of his period, offered both as a diachronic and a synchronic linguistic testimony of his time. As no language exists in vacuo, my description of MC starts with a historical approach to the language under study; it is almost impossible to realise the problems of colloquial, literary and foreign features without being aware of the earlier history of Greek in general and of Cypriot in particular, in some of its earlier documents. I refrained as far as possible from entering the field of comparative criticism with Medieval Greek. In this way I decided to focus on discussions based exclusively on the Cypriot forms and patterns, as presented and justified by the evidence in Makhairas, and as witnessed by history which, for many centuries, has singled out Cypriot from the rest of the dialects and the Greek language itself. So, alternative views, criticism and discussion of same mechanisms of change recorded within the broader Greek language have been more or less avoided. The exposition of the MC word order patterns is based on my hypotheses that word order, as I understand it, is founded on purposes of communication and that languages with extreme flexibility of order, such as Medieval Cypriot, may adopt patterns that display rigidity of order in a number of their elements. It is within these areas of rigidity that new mechanisms of change may be detected. I also hypothesised that the same syntactic changes within languages of the same branch may be merely coincidental, and that Greek or forms of Greek may well adopt foreign elements, only (but not exclusively) if these acquire the Greek endings, or if they appear as independent affixes, as is the case with the post-medieval referential Cypriot marker �mish� which is from Turkish. Acquiring particular elements from other languages does not mean acquiring their order. However, acquiring patterns that are similar to Greek from a borrowing language which has the same patterns does not exclude syntactic borrowing. Since Modern Cypriot is V-initial, I presumed that this might have also been its order in the Middle Ages. I judge that major mechanisms of syntactic change of the same period may have been triggered by factors internal to Cypriot rather than by the more general, universal mechanisms of change. Moreover, I speculated that MC was a far more marginalised language in the Middle Ages than what history and literature have taught us. Its creative dynamism and potentiality to �juggle� between words and patterns has been its greater forte. Cypriot has not been studied as a dialect, in this work. I avoided having only a partial or a shadowed understanding of its word order patterns. Exhaustive descriptions that show its particularities in the process of completion appear with both rigidity (in some elements) and flexibility of order, and most importantly, they exhibit a long-life endurance. I have also been concerned with forms and /or patterns of Greek such as the future and other periphrastic tenses, although they are already known and have been analysed at length in Greek linguistic studies. I concentrate here on some of these from a Cypriot perspective. Cypriot has never been classified as Balkan Greek or mainland Greek. Following this study, it will be clarified further that any attempt to fit MC into a framework defined along these categorisations will be successful only in some areas of the general Greek syntax. In fact, Cypriot opens the way for a further understanding of Greek syntax with its (almost) boundless flexibility; it is through MC and the unique data of Makhairas that the study of the Greek syntax is being enriched. Areas of fine-grained classificatory criteria result in connecting some MC syntactic traits to those of Greek and accrediting to the language its own word order singularities in what can be righteously called here the Cypriot syntax. Additionally, the study aims to open new areas of investigation on diachronic syntactic issues and to initiate new and revealing answers concerning configurational syntax. To determine the syntactic traits of MC a meticulous work of counting was needed. The counting of the order of the main constituents from both the more general narrative patterns of the Chronicle as well as of those passages thought to be more immediate to the author�s living experience(s) was done manually. The primarily and more difficult task of considering, following and explaining pragmatic word order patterns in the Chronicle has been the stepping stone of this research. Earlier (and forgotten) stages of Greek, and patterns exclusive to Cypriot, assembled in a unique lexicon and with special Cypriot phrasal verbs, have provided answers to explaining the Cypriot structure. In addition to statistics, areas of language contact have also been explored, both in the morphology and in the syntax. More importantly, the extreme word order freedom of MC that illustrates word order processes based entirely on internal structural changes, aims to contribute to discussions regarding morphology and syntax versus morphosyntax. Chapter 1 provides all the background information of the history and language in Cyprus, prior to the Middle Ages. Chapter 2 deals with the description of the data and the methodology used to assess them. Chapter 3 exhibits the MC verbal forms, both finite and non-finite; it examines non-finites more closely, inasmuch as they play an important role in the change of the order of major constituents and uncover and explain the role of V-initial structures. Chapter 4 is the core chapter of this work. It displays Cypriot particularities of word order, reveals data concerned with the word order of the major constituents within the clause and unfolds explanatory accounts of them; lastly, it classifies MC as a V-initial language. Chapter 5 summarises conclusions, adds a further note on the Cypriot morphosyntactic traits while placing the results into the contemporary scholarship on VSO languages, also suggesting additional research areas into the MC patterns. The examples from Makhairas have been written in the monotonic system, where only one accent has been used; other special symbols have been eliminated or modified in the interest of making the text readable in the absence of the right font. However, Ancient Greek words appear with their appropriate accents. Abbreviation C indicates structures or words that remained unchanged in Cypriot over a long period of time, and G means a form or word accepted in both their written and spoken forms over a long period of time in Greek. A morphemic analysis of each form of the glosses has not always been given. I limited myself to glossing some elements only, for the better understanding of some examples.

Στη μεταπτυχιακή αυτή διατριβή αμφισβητώ την ευρέως διαδεδομένη άποψη ότι η διάκριση ανάμεσα σε ενδοκεντρικά και εξωκεντρικά σύνθετα είναι κατ’ εξοχήν σημασιολογική (βλ. μεταξύ άλλων Bauer 2009: 350). Αντιθέτως, ακολουθώντας τους Ralli & Andreou (2010), προτείνω ότι η συγκεκριμένη διάκριση είναι δομική. Για να υποστηρίξω τους ισχυρισμούς και τις προτάσεις μου, παραθέτω δεδομένα από την Κυπριακή και την Κοινή Νέα Ελληνική. Καταρχάς, υποστηρίζω ότι η εξωκεντρικότητα δεν είναι ένα περιθωριακό φαινόμενο στη σύνθεση, δεδομένου ότι διάφορες γλωσσικές ποικιλίες, μεταξύ των οποίων και η Κυπριακή, επιδεικνύουν υψηλό βαθμό παραγωγικότητας εξωκεντρικών συνθέτων. Ακολούθως, υποστηρίζω ότι η σημασιολογία δεν μπορεί να μας οδηγήσει σε ασφαλή συμπεράσματα ούτε για την κατηγοριοποίηση των εξωκεντρικών, αλλά ούτε και για τη διάκριση ανάμεσα σε ενδοκεντρικότητα και εξωκεντρικότητα. Επιπρόσθετα, σε αντίθεση με τους Scalise et al. (2009), δείχνω ότι τα μορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά, όπως για παράδειγμα το γένος και η κλιτική τάξη, δεν μπορούν να ορίσουν την εξωκεντρικότητα. Καταληκτικά, προτείνω ότι η ενδοκεντρικότητα και η εξωκεντρικότητα είναι επιφαινόμενα της σειράς εφαρμογής των διαδικασιών σχηματισμού λέξεων, σύνθεσης και παραγωγής. Με βάση την πρόταση αυτή, ένα σύνθετο είναι εξωκεντρικό όταν η σύνθεση και η παραγωγή οι οποίες συνεμφανίζονται (co-occur) σε ένα μορφολογικά πολύπλοκο πρωτογενή σχηματισμό, αλληλεπιδρούν με τέτοιο τρόπο ώστε η παραγωγή να έπεται της σύνθεσης. Αντίθετα, ένα σύνθετο είναι ενδοκεντρικό όταν περιλαμβάνει μόνο σύνθεση ή όταν συμπεριλαμβάνει παραγωγή και σύνθεση με αυτή τη σειρά. / In this MA thesis, I challenge the widely accepted view that the distinction between endocentric and exocentric compounds is fundamentally semantic (see, among others, Bauer 2009: 350). Following Ralli & Andreou (2010), I propose, instead, that this is a structural distinction. I illustrate my claims and proposals by using data from Greek and Cypriot Greek. First, I challenge the widespread view that exocentric compounds do not belong to the productive word-formation mechanism given that exocentricity in a number of linguistic varieties, Cypriot included, is very productive. In addition, I show that semantics cannot be a safe criterion for either classifying exocentric compounds into various categories or distinguishing between endocentric and exocentric compounds. Moreover, I argue that morphological features, e.g. gender and inflection class, cannot define exocentricity, in the way Scalise et al. (2009) have proposed. Finally, I suggest that exocentricity might be an epiphenomenon of the order of application of the two word-formation processes, according to which, when compounding and derivation co-occur within the same morphologically-complex item, compounding precedes derivation. In contrast, a structure is endocentric, if it contains only compounding, or involves derivation and compounding, in this particular order.

Syftet med denna studie är att ta reda på högstadieelevers attityder till dialekt. Detta har gjorts genom att respondenter från två olika skolor i Värmland svarat på en webbenkät. Skolorna är belägna i Kil respektive Arvika. Av respondenternas svar har ett generellt resultat sammanställts, där båda undersökningsgruppernas svar vägts samman. Gruppernas svar har sedan jämförts för att kunna peka på skillnader som finns kring attityder till dialekt. Attityderna gäller både den allmänna synen på dialekt men också mer specifikt när det kommer till undervisningssituationer. Det generella resultatet visar att attityderna till dialekt i allmänhet är övervägande positiv. De situationer då dialekten föredras är informella, exempelvis i kontakt med familj och vänner. Resultaten visar att dialekt undviks i högre utsträckning när det gäller formella situationer, som i kontakt med lärare och personal på skolan samt under lektionstid. Majoriteten av respondenterna har uppgett att de uppfattas som mer bildade då de talar standardspråk i undervisningssituationer. I kontrast till detta visar resultatet att majoriteten av respondenterna tar läraren på allvar om denne talar dialektalt i samband med undervisningssituationer. Det går således att peka på att respondenterna av allt att döma anser att det är viktigare att de själva talar standardspråk än att lärarna gör det. Ytterligare en aspekt som är motsägelsefull i detta hänseende är att resultatet visar att respondenterna i hög utsträckning anser att lärare bör anpassa sitt språk till standardsvenska. Då svaren mellan de båda undersökningsgrupperna jämförs visar det sig att respondenterna från Arvika har en något positivare syn på dialekt i allmänhet jämfört med de från Kil. Dessa skillnader är dock marginella. Större skillnader visar sig när det gäller formella situationer. Respondenterna från Arvika anser att det inte är lika viktigt att tala standardspråk i samband med undervisningssituationer jämfört med de från Kil. Lärare som talar dialektalt tas också på större allvar bland respondenterna från Arvika. Detta visar sig också genom att respondenterna från Kil i högre utsträckning anser att lärare bör anpassa sitt språk till standardsvenska jämfört med respondenterna från Arvika. / The purpose of this study is to find out about secondary school students attitudes towards dialect. This has been done by respondents from two different schools in the county of Värmland1 who responded to a web survey. The schools are located in Kil 2 and Arvika3. Of the respondents' answers, a general result was compiled, where the answers of both survey groups were weighed together. The groups' responses have then been compared to point out differences that exist about attitudes to dialect. Attitudes apply to both the general view of dialect but also more specifically when it comes to teaching situations. The overall result shows that the attitudes of dialect in general are predominantly positive. The situations in which the dialect is preferred are informal, for example in contact with family and friends. The results show that the dialect is avoided to a greater extent in terms of formal situations, as in contact with teachers and staff at school as well as during lesson. The majority of respondents have stated that they are perceived as more formed when they speak standard language in teaching situations. Contrary to this, the result shows that the majority of respondents take the teacher seriously if he/she speaks dialectically in connection with teaching situations. It is thus possible to point out that the respondents (of all judgment) consider it more important that they speak standard language than the teachers do. Another aspect that is contradictory in this regard is that the results show that the respondents to a large extent consider that teachers should adapt their language to standard Swedish. When the answers between the two study groups are compared, it appears that the respondents from Arvika have a somewhat more positive view of dialect in general compared to those from Kil. However, these differences are marginal. Greater differences are found in formal situations. Respondents from Arvika consider it not as important to speak standard languages in relation to teaching situations compared to those from Kil. Teachers who speak dialectically are also taken more seriously among respondents from Arvika. This is also evidenced by the fact that the respondents from Kil consider that teachers should adapt their language to standard Swedish to a higher extent compared with respondents from Arvika.

As identidades sociais não podem ser estabelecidas a priori, mas são negociadas pelos participantes a cada momento na interação. As pessoas trazem atributos potenciais para a interação face a face que podem ser ressaltados em um encontro particular (ERICKSON, 2001). Partindo dessa perspectiva, este estudo investiga a interação face a face nas aulas de alemão padrão, verificando como as identidades são tornadas relevantes nesse contexto, observando especificamente as ações que envolvem os alunos falantes de dialetos do alemão. Para isso foi feito um trabalho de cunho etnográfico com base na Análise Microetnográfica, (ERICKSON, 1992, 1996) em três turmas de alemão, duas de um Centro de Línguas e de uma turma de uma Universidade em Porto Alegre (RS). Alguns conceitos da Análise da Conversa Etnometodológica (SACKS, SCHEGLOFF e JEFFERSON, 1974; TEN HAVE, 1999; GARCEZ, 2002) e da Sociolingüística Interacional (GUMPERZ e COOK-GUMPERZ, 1982, GUMPERZ, 2001) contribuem para a análise das identidades ressaltadas nesse contexto. Os resultados da pesquisa sugerem que o conhecimento prévio demonstrado pelos alunos consiste em um atributo de identidade relevante nesse contexto, o que não garante, no entanto, que, em alguns momentos, esses alunos não negociem atributos que demonstrem insegurança e baixa auto-estima em relação à língua que dominam. Apesar disso, parece que as construções identitárias negativas não são reforçadas pelos outros participantes da interação em sala de aula, visto que os alunos falantes de dialeto demonstram ampla participação nas aulas e são reconhecidos como bons alunos pelo professor e por seus colegas. / The social identities in talk can not be estabilisched a priori but are negociated by the participants during the course of interaction. People bring to interaction potencial attributes that can become relevant in any particular encounter (Erickson, 2001). From this perspective, this research investigates the face-to-face interaction in German Language Classes, observing how identities become relevant and analyzing the data from three German Language Classes based on the principles of microethnographic research (ERICKSON, 1992, 1996). Two classes took place in a Language School and one at a University in Porto Alegre (RS). Some concepts derived from Conversational Analysis (SACKS, SCHEGLOFF e JEFFERSON, 1974; TEN HAVE, 1999; GARCEZ, 2002) and Interactional Sociolinguistics (GUMPERZ e COOK-GUMPERZ, 1982, GUMPERZ, 2001) contribute to the analysis. The results of this research suggest that the previous knowledge displayed by the students is a relevant identity attribute in this context; however, it does not garantee that those students would not negociate insecurity features in their own language. Even though, it seems that the negative identity attributes are not reinforced by the other participants of interaction in the classroom, once the dialect speakers display active participation in the classroom tasks and they are seen as diligent students by teachers and classmates.

As identidades sociais não podem ser estabelecidas a priori, mas são negociadas pelos participantes a cada momento na interação. As pessoas trazem atributos potenciais para a interação face a face que podem ser ressaltados em um encontro particular (ERICKSON, 2001). Partindo dessa perspectiva, este estudo investiga a interação face a face nas aulas de alemão padrão, verificando como as identidades são tornadas relevantes nesse contexto, observando especificamente as ações que envolvem os alunos falantes de dialetos do alemão. Para isso foi feito um trabalho de cunho etnográfico com base na Análise Microetnográfica, (ERICKSON, 1992, 1996) em três turmas de alemão, duas de um Centro de Línguas e de uma turma de uma Universidade em Porto Alegre (RS). Alguns conceitos da Análise da Conversa Etnometodológica (SACKS, SCHEGLOFF e JEFFERSON, 1974; TEN HAVE, 1999; GARCEZ, 2002) e da Sociolingüística Interacional (GUMPERZ e COOK-GUMPERZ, 1982, GUMPERZ, 2001) contribuem para a análise das identidades ressaltadas nesse contexto. Os resultados da pesquisa sugerem que o conhecimento prévio demonstrado pelos alunos consiste em um atributo de identidade relevante nesse contexto, o que não garante, no entanto, que, em alguns momentos, esses alunos não negociem atributos que demonstrem insegurança e baixa auto-estima em relação à língua que dominam. Apesar disso, parece que as construções identitárias negativas não são reforçadas pelos outros participantes da interação em sala de aula, visto que os alunos falantes de dialeto demonstram ampla participação nas aulas e são reconhecidos como bons alunos pelo professor e por seus colegas. / The social identities in talk can not be estabilisched a priori but are negociated by the participants during the course of interaction. People bring to interaction potencial attributes that can become relevant in any particular encounter (Erickson, 2001). From this perspective, this research investigates the face-to-face interaction in German Language Classes, observing how identities become relevant and analyzing the data from three German Language Classes based on the principles of microethnographic research (ERICKSON, 1992, 1996). Two classes took place in a Language School and one at a University in Porto Alegre (RS). Some concepts derived from Conversational Analysis (SACKS, SCHEGLOFF e JEFFERSON, 1974; TEN HAVE, 1999; GARCEZ, 2002) and Interactional Sociolinguistics (GUMPERZ e COOK-GUMPERZ, 1982, GUMPERZ, 2001) contribute to the analysis. The results of this research suggest that the previous knowledge displayed by the students is a relevant identity attribute in this context; however, it does not garantee that those students would not negociate insecurity features in their own language. Even though, it seems that the negative identity attributes are not reinforced by the other participants of interaction in the classroom, once the dialect speakers display active participation in the classroom tasks and they are seen as diligent students by teachers and classmates.

The aim of this Dissertation Thesis is to gather the generation language among the elderly and younger (generation) in South Bohemia to find out phonetical, formal, lexical differences, which have been happening during the generation shift.