Depression is a condition characterized by sadness and other symptoms, which are implicated in a persistent style of thinking referred to as depressive rumination. The analytical rumination hypothesis argues that depression is an adaptive response to complicated, personal problems, and that rumination involves an analysis of these problems. This analytical rumination has two stages: first, depressive symptoms promote causal analysis (i.e., considering why the problems happened). Causal analysis then leads to problem-solving analysis (i.e., finding ways to deal with problems), which in turn reduces depression. The empirical studies in this dissertation collectively test whether the nature of depressive thinking is consistent with the analytical rumination hypothesis. In Chapter 2, I investigated the temporal order of sadness and the stages of analytical rumination by asking participants to write about their personal problems. This writing paradigm promoted sadness and causal analysis, but not problem-solving analysis, suggesting that depressive symptoms coincide with causal thinking. In Chapter 3, I explored whether emotions during writing were related to analytical thinking by modifying the paradigm to isolate the impact of other factors (i.e., personal experience with the problem and its valence). These factors could not fully account for emotional changes during writing, suggesting that analytical thinking played a role. Analytical rumination is one of several theories of depressive thinking, so in Chapter 4, I conducted a joint factor analysis of four rumination questionnaires and compared the prevalence of the emerging factors. Factors reflecting causal thoughts and problem-solving were most frequently endorsed, even when they were measured in the presence of sadness induced by the writing paradigm in Chapter 5. Furthermore, associations between these factors and depressive symptoms were consistent with the stages of analytical rumination. Overall, my findings suggest that depressive thinking focuses on understanding and solving problems, and it may have functional implications for depression. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Depression is a mental health condition in part characterized by sadness and changes in thinking. One evolutionary perspective argues that depression is a response to complicated, personal problems, and that symptoms of depression, like sadness, help individuals think through their problems. According to this perspective, depressive thinking is analytical, and it involves causal thinking to identify why the problems happened and problem-solving to find potential solutions. In my dissertation, I examine whether individuals engage in causal thinking and problem-solving when they are sad or depressed. My experiments assess whether writing about personal problems promotes sadness and causal thinking, and they examine the impact of analytical thinking on changes in sadness during writing. Because the evolutionary perspective is one of several theories on depressive thinking, I also use a psychometric method to integrate these theories and to examine how causal thinking and problem-solving are linked with sadness and other depressive symptoms.

Research suggests a significant negative relationship exists between analytical and critical thinking and epistemically unwarranted beliefs. The present study aimed to examine this relationship by measuring preference for and engagement in analytical and critical thinking, then comparing these variables with belief in conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, and paranormal phenomena. The quantitative cross-sectional observational study was conducted without intervention, collecting multi-purpose data. Email invitations recruited participants (N=112) from small and large businesses, organisations, schools, independent churches, and interest groups in alternative medicine and pseudoscience. Participants were Swedish speaking and 18 years or older. Relationships between variables were tested with Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The result showed significant negative correlations between beliefs in pseudoscience and the variables rationality, rational favorability, rational ability, and engagement. In addition, rational ability had a significant negative correlation with paranormal beliefs. The result did not show significant correlations between the measured cognitive variables and belief in conspiracy theories. The results suggest that individuals disengaged from, or lacking preference for, analytical and critical thinking processes are more likely to reject established science and instead endorse pseudoscience and paranormal beliefs. The study contributes to a deeper understanding of how cognitive traits and skills are connected to epistemically unwarranted beliefs. Future research can further explore these cognitive traits and skills, because they are crucial in health promotion efforts to mitigate epistemically unwarranted beliefs. Facilitating enhanced learning environments, supporting health promotion initiatives, and enabling effective health communication will cultivate reflective, empowered, and ultimately healthier members of society.

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Study project (Mnutr) -- University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Quality nursing care is characterised by clinical decisions based on critical and analytical thinking. The assessment, planning and implementation information which is used as basis for decision making must be recorded in the patient's record/file. The questlon is rai_sed whetherthe patient's record does indeed reflect critical and analytical thinking. The focus on the midwife's practices during professional conduct hearings which relate to intrapartum service delivery, led to the specific choice of population, namely intrapartum services delivery in Levell hospitals in the Western Cape. A non-experimental study whereby qualitative and quantitative data were collected, was performed in six (6) Levell hospitals. Check lists were compiled to evaluate the structure and facilities in which midwifery practice is executed. The records of 128 patients were analysed to specifically investigate the nature and extent of critical and analytical decisionmaking by midwives, and the extent to which the midwife really applies reflective practices. The results showed that record-keeping is not done optimally; that the partogram, which - - ---- is a comprehensive evaluation of the progress of_lab_2~1isJ not used and that the records did not indicate that the midwife applies critical and analytical thinking and acts accordingly. Recommendationsare that the proposals for the improvement of intrapartum service delivery, as made by Odendal (2004: ii-iv) and the Department of Health (2000: 42), are to receive immediate attention. It appears as if protocols and guidelines for emergency action and general safe practices do exist, but are not enforced. Continued inservice training receive priority attention. Core words: critical analytical thinking; midwife's practice and practices; intrapartum care service delivery / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gehalte verpleegsorg word deur kliniese besluite wat op kritiese en analitiese denke gegrond word gekenmerk. In die pasient se rekord moet die ramings-, beplannings- en implementeringsgegewens gerekordeer word wat gebruik is as basis vir besluitneming. Die vraag ontstaan egter of die pasient se rekord wei kritiese en analitiese denke weerspieel. Die fokus op die vroedvrou se praktyke in professionele gedragsake wat met intrapartumsorgdienslewering verband hou, het tot die spesifieke keuse van die populasie, naamlik intrapartumsorgdienste in vlak 1-hospitale in die Wes-Kaapaanleiding gegee. 'n Nie-eksperimentele studie waartydens kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe data ingesamel is, is in ses (6) vlak 1- hospitale uitgevoer. Kontrolelyste is opgestel om die struktuur en fasiliteite waarbinne vroedvroupraktyke plaasvind, te evalueer. Die rekords van 128 pasiente is ontleed om spesifiek ondersoek in te stel na die aard en omvang van kritiese en analitiese besluitneming deur die vroedvrou, en tot watter mate die vroedvrou wei weldeurdagte praktyke toepas. Die resultate toon dat rekordhouding nie optimaal gedoen word nie; dat die partogram wat 'n omvattende evaluering van die kraamverloop is, nie gebruik word nie, en dat daar uit die rekords nie 'n aanduiding gevind kan word dat vroedvroue wei krities en analities dink en optree nie. Aanbevelings is dat die voorstelle ter verbetering van intrapartumsorgdienslewering 5005 gemaak deur Odendal (2004: iii-v) en die Departement van Gesondheid (2000: 42), indringend aandag moet geniet. Dit wil voorkom asof protokolle en riglyne vir noodoptrede en algemene veilige praktykvoering wei bestaan, maar nie toegepas word nie. Voortgesette indiensopleiding moet as 'n prioritieit aangespreek word. Kernwoorde: kritiese analitiese denke; vroedvroupraktykvoering; vroedvroupraktyke, intrapartumsorgdienslewering.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka om regelbunden fysisk aktivitet respektive kognitiv aktivitet hade samband med kognitiva funktioner i åldersgruppen 65+. Mer specifikt har sambandet mellan regelbunden fysisk aktivitet i termer av total träningsmängd, träningsintensitet (mycket/måttligt ansträngande och promenader) samt total tid stillasittande och de kognitiva funktionerna; exekutiva funktioner, bearbetningshastighet och analytiskt tänkande studerats. 28 individer i åldrarna 65–85 (M = 75.52, SD = 5.15) deltog i studien, varav 14 var kvinnor och 14 var män. Deltagarna rekryterades på lokala gym samt öppna mötesplatser och besvarade ett frågeformulär med bakgrundsfrågor (kön, ålder, utbildningsnivå), deras fysiska aktivitetsvanor (International Physical Activities Questionnaire, IPAQ) samt kognitionsvanor (Florida Cognitive Activities Scale, FCAS). Efter att ha besvarat frågorna genomförde deltagarna kognitiva test som mäter tre olika kognitiva funktioner; exekutiv funktion (via Trail Making Test B, TMT B), bearbetningshastighet (via Trail Making Test A, TMT A, samt Symbol Digit Modalities Test, SDMT) och analytiskt tänkande (via Cognitive Reflection Test, CRT). Modell 2 med prediktorerna total fysisk aktivitet och kognitiv aktivitet var signifikant och förklarade 36% av variansen i TMT A. Modell 3 med prediktorn mycket ansträngande fysisk aktivitet var signifikant och förklarade 11% av variansen i CRT rätt. Modell 7 med prediktorerna mycket ansträngande fysisk aktivitet, måttligt ansträngande fysisk aktivitet och promenader var signifikant och förklarade 25% av variansen i CRT rätt. Positivt signifikanta samband hittades för kognitiv aktivitet och bearbetningshastighet, samt för promenader och analytiskt tänkande. Negativt signifikant samband hittades mellan mycket ansträngande fysisk aktivitet och analytiskt tänkande. Inga signifikanta resultat hittades för de exekutiva funktionerna. Resultaten från föreliggande studie tyder på att en högre grad av kognitiv aktivitet är relaterat till bättre bearbetningshastighet, mer promenader är relaterat till bättre förmåga till analytiskt tänkande, samt att en högre grad av mycket ansträngande fysisk aktivitet är relaterat till sämre förmåga till analytiskt tänkande. / The purpose of the study was to examine the association between regular physical and cognitive activity and cognitive functioning in an older population. More specifically the association between regular physical activity in terms of total amount of exercise, exercise intensity (vigorous / moderate strenuous and walks), plus total amount of time spent sitting during a day and the cognitive functions; executive function, processing speed and analytical thinking. Twenty-eight participants between 65-85 years of age (MD = 75.52, SD = 5.15) partook in the present study, of which 14 were women and 14 were men. The participants were recruited at local gyms and public meeting places and answered a questionnaire including background questions (gender, age, educational level), their physical activity habits (International Physical Activities Questionnaire, IPAQ) and cognitive activity habits (Florida Cognitive Activities Scale, FCAS). After answering the questions, the participants performed cognitive tests to measure the three cognitive functions; executive function (through Trail Making Test B, TMT B), processing speed (through Trail Making Test A, TMT A, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test, SDMT) and analytical thinking (through Cognitive Reflection Test, CRT). Model 2 with the predictors' total physical activity and cognitive activity was significant and explained 36% of the variance in TMT A. Model 3 with the predictor vigorous strenuous physical activity was significant and explained 11% of the variance in CRT Correct. Model 7 with the predictors' vigorous strenuous physical activity, moderate strenuous physical activity and walks was significant and explained 25% of the variance in CRT Correct. Positive significant associations were found between cognitive activity and processing speed, as well as between walks and analytical thinking. Finally negative significant associations between vigorous strenuous activity and analytical thinking was found. No significant results were found for executive functions in the present study. The results from the current study suggests that higher degrees of cognitive activity is related to better processing speed, more walks are related to better analytical thinking, and that a higher degree of vigorous physical activity is related to poorer ability of analytical thinking.

Syftet med den aktuella studien var att undersöka om det finns något samband mellanfysisk aktivitet och kognitiv aktivitet kopplat till den kognitiva förmågan i åldersgruppen 65+.Det har studerats om det finns något samband mellan olika mängd på fysisk aktivitet (mycketansträngande, måttligt ansträngande, promenader) samt stillasittande och den kognitivaförmågan (exekutiva funktioner, analytiskt tänkande, bearbetningshastighet). Totalt deltog 30personer, varav 63% kvinnor, i åldrarna 65 till 84 år (M = 73,93, SD = 5.85) som rekryteradesvia offentliga mötesplatser för åldersgruppen samt via personliga kontakter. Deltagarnabesvarade frågeformulär med bakgrundsfrågor (kön, ålder, utbildningsnivå) samt ettsjälvskattningsformulär om fysiska aktivitetsvanor (International Physical ActivitiesQuestionnaire, IPAQ) och ett självskattningsformulär om kognitiva aktivitetsvanor (FloridaCognitive Activities Scale, FCAS). Efter detta fick deltagarna genomföra de fyrakognitionstesterna; Trail Making Test A (TMT A), Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT)som mäter bearbetningshastigheten, Trail Making Test B (TMT B) som mäter exekutivfunktion samt Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) som mäter analytiskt tänkande.Resultatet visade på signifikant samband mellan ålder och bearbetningshastighet samtexekutiv funktion. Signifikant samband fanns även mellan kognitiv aktivitet ochbearbetningshastighet samt exekutiv funktion. Signifikant samband kunde även identifierasmellan promenader och analytiskt tänkande. Inga signifikanta resultat kunde hittas förresterande variabler och kognitiv förmåga.Resultatet från aktuell studie tyder på att högre grad av kognitiv aktivitet har ettsamband med bearbetningshastighet och exekutiva funktioner. Resultatet visar även attpromenader är relaterat till analytiskt tänkande. Ålder visade sig signifikant ha ett sambandmed bearbetningshastighet och exekutiva funktioner. / The purpose of the current study was to investigate whether there is any relationshipbetween physical activity and cognitive activity linked to cognitive ability in the age group65+. The study investigated whether there is any relationship between different amounts ofphysical activity (very strenuous, moderately strenuous, walking) as well as sedentary timeand cognitive ability (executive functions, analytical thinking, processing speed). A total of 30people participated, of which 63% were women, aged between 65 to 84 years (M = 73.93, SD= 5.85), who were recruited via public meeting places for the age group as well as viapersonal contacts. The participants answered questionnaires with background questions(gender, age, level of education) as well as a self-assessment questionnaire on physicalactivity habits (International Physical Activities Questionnaire, IPAQ) and a self-assessmentquestionnaire on cognitive activity habits (Florida Cognitive Activities Scale, FCAS). Afterthis, the participants had to complete the four cognitive tests; Trail Making Test A (TMT A),Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) which measures processing speed, Trail Making TestB (TMT B) which measures executive function and the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT)which measures analytical thinking.The results showed a significant relationship between age and processing speed aswell as executive function. There was also a significant relationship between cognitiveactivity and processing speed as well as executive function. A significant relationship couldalso be identified between walking and analytical thinking. No significant results could befound for the remaining variables and cognitive ability.The results from the current study indicate that a higher degree of cognitive activityhas a relationship with processing speed and executive functions. The result also shows thatwalking is related to analytical thinking. Age was found to be significantly related toprocessing speed and executive functions.

The purpose of the study was to examine if intuitive thinking, analytical thinking, critical thinking, pseudoscientific beliefs, rejection of science regarding climate, rejection of science regarding vaccines and education correlates with belief in conspiracy theories. The data was collected through a non-randomized convenience and volunteer sampling by a questionnaire that was answered by the participants and measured all variables. The study used a quantitative cross-sectional design with 125 participants, of whom 48 were men, 75 women and 2 other/wish not to say, aged 18–82 (M=46.28, SD=13.48). The result showed that the model was significant and that people with a more negative attitude towards vaccines, a higher degree of belief in pseudoscience and higher preference for and trust in intuitive thinking showed a higher belief in conspiracy theories; other variables were not significantly related to belief in conspiracy theories. The result can be used as a basis for future research on belief in conspiracy theories and its relationship to other factors than in current study. / Syftet med studien var att undersöka ifall intuitivt tänkande, analytiskt tänkande, kritiskttänkande, tro på pseudovetenskap, inställning till klimatforskning, inställning tillvaccinforskning samt utbildningsnivå, korrelerar med tro på konspirationsteorier. Insamlingen av data skedde genom ett icke slumpmässigt tillgänglighetsurval samt frivillighetsurval via ett frågeformulär som mätte samtliga variabler och besvarades av deltagarna. Studien var av kvantitativ tvärsnittsdesign med 125 deltagare, varav 48 män, 75 kvinnor samt 2 annan/vill ej uppge, i åldrarna 18–82 år (M=46.28, SD=13.48). Resultatet visade att modellen var signifikant och indikerar att personer med en mer negativ inställning till vaccin, högre grad av tro på pseudovetenskap, samt högre preferens för och tilltro till intuitivt tänkande uppvisar en högre tro på konspirationsteorier. Övriga variabler var inte signifikant relaterade till tro på konspirationsteorier. Resultatet kan användas som underlag för framtida forskning om tro på konspirationsteoriers och dess samband med andra variabler än de i aktuella studien.

This study explores the predominant mathematical thinking style that students with academic talent used in solving mathematical problems. Thinking styles are preferences by subjects in the way of expressing mathematical skills against a task, in this case, visual, formal and integrated. We assessed 99 students from an academic support talent program, in a retrospective ex post facto study with only one group. We administered the questionnaire mathematical thinking styles of Borromeo-Ferri and determined that these students exhibited mostly an integrated style of thinking, which involves the use of symbols and verbal representations with visual expressions in solving mathematical exercises. They also show a strong orientation to address the problems of combined mode, which involves considering them as a whole at a time. / El presente estudio establece el estilo de pensamiento matemático predominante que utilizan los estudiantes con talento académico en la resolución de problemas matemáticos. Los estilos de pensamiento son preferencias por parte de los sujetos en la forma de expresar las habilidades frente a una tarea matemática, en este caso, visual, formal e integrado. En el marco de un estudio ex post facto retrospectivo de grupo único, se evaluó a un total de 99 estudiantes pertenecientes a un programa académico de apoyo al talento con el cuestionario Estilos de Pensamiento Matemático de Borromeo-Ferri. Los resultados indican que los estudiantes declararon orientarse hacia el estilo de pensamiento integrado, que supone el uso de simbología y representaciones verbales junto con expresiones visuales en la resolución de los ejercicios matemáticos, así como una significativa orientación a abordar los problemas de modo combinado, que supone considerar los problemas como un todo. / La présente étude établit le style de pensée mathématique prédominant utilisé par les étudiants ayant un talent académique dans la résolution de problèmes mathématiques. Les styles de pensée sont des préférences de la part des sujets sous la forme d’exprimer les capacités face à une tâche mathématique, dans ce cas, visuelle, formelle et intégrée. Dans une étude rétrospective sur un seul groupe ex post facto, un total de 99 étudiants appartenant à un programme de soutien aux talents universitaires ont été évalués, à qui le questionnaire Styles de Pensée mathématique de Borromeo-Ferri a été appliqué et déterminé que ce type de sujets déclare principalement un style de pensée intégré, ce qui implique l’utilisation de la symbologie et des représentations verbales ainsi que des expressions visuelles dans la résolution des exercices mathématiques. En outre, ils montrent une forte orientation pour aborder les problèmes de manière combinée, ce qui implique de les considérer dans leur ensemble dans le même temps. / Este estudo estabelece o estilo predominante do pensamento matemático usado por os alunos com talento acadêmico na resolução de problemas matemáticos. Os estilos de pensamento são as preferências dos indivíduos sobre a forma para expressar as capacidades em uma tarefa matemática, neste caso, visual, formal e integrada. Como parte de um estudo ex post facto retrospectivo de grupo único, foram avaliados um total de 99 estudantes de um programa de talento acadêmico. Foram aplicados nos alunos o questionário “Estilos de Pensamento Matemático de Borromeo-Ferri” e determinou-se que a maioria dos participantes declararam um estilo de pensamento integrado, que envolve o uso de símbolos e representações verbais com resolução de expressões visuais de exercícios matemáticos. Eles mostram também uma forte orientação para resolver os problemas de modo combinado, o qual envolve a considerá-los como um todo de uma vez.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka ifall intuitivt tänkande, analytiskt tänkande, tro påparanormala fenomen, tro på pseudovetenskap, förkastande av forskning kring klimat,förkastande av forskning kring vaccin, utbildningsnivå, maktlöshet samt tro på enkla lösningarpredicerar tro på konspirationsteorier. Insamlingen av data skedde genom ett icke slumpmässigtbekvämlighetsurval samt frivillighetsurval. Studien var av kvantitativ tvärsnittsdesign med 244deltagare, varav 112 män, 131 kvinnor samt 1 annan/vill ej uppge, i åldrarna 18–80 år (M=37.1,SD=14.5). Resultatet från analysen visade att modellen var signifikant samt att tro påparanormala fenomen (β=.36, p<.001), förkastande av forskning kring vaccin (β=.32, p<.001)och maktlöshet (β=.11, p<.05) var signifikanta prediktorer för tro på konspirationsteorier.Däremot var inte intuitivt tänkande, analytiskt tänkande, tro på pseudovetenskap, förkastandeav forskning kring klimat, tro på enkla lösningar eller utbildningsnivå signifikanta prediktoreri modellen. Resultatet kan ligga till grund för att vidare undersöka tro på konspirationsteorierssamband med andra faktorer än aktuell studies prediktorer i framtida forskning. / The purpose of the study was to examine if intuitive thinking, analytic thinking, paranormalbeliefs, pseudoscientific beliefs, rejection of science regarding climate, rejection of scienceregarding vaccine, education, powerlessness and belief in simple solutions predicts belief inconspiracy theories. The data was collected through a non-randomised convenience andvolunteer sampling. The study used a quantitative cross-sectional design with 244 participants,of whom 112 were men, 131 women and 1 other/wish not to say, aged 18–80 (M=37.1,SD=14.5). The result from the analysis showed that the model was significant and that belief inconspiracy theories was significantly predicted by paranormal beliefs, (β=.36, p<.001),rejection of science regarding vaccine (β=.32, p<.001) and powerlessness (β=.11, p<.05).However, the result showed that intuitive thinking, analytic thinking, pseudoscientific beliefs,rejection of science regarding climate, belief in simple solutions and education were notsignificant predictors of belief in conspiracy theories in the model. The result can be used as abasis for future research to further examine belief in conspiracy theories relationship to factorsother than the current study's predictors.