In the historical tapestry of the development of the Goddess, from 10,000 - 330 BCE one golden thread shines through. Despite the vicissitudes of differing status, she remained essentially the same, namely divine. She was continuously sought in the many mysteries, mystic ideologies and through the manifestations that she inspired. In all the countries of the Ancient Near East, the mother goddess was the life giving creatrix and regenerator of the world and the essence of the generating force that seeds new life. While her name may have altered in the various areas, along with that of her consort/lover/child, the myths and rituals which formed a major force in forming the ancient cultures would become manifest in a consciousness and a spiritual awareness. / Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies / M.A. (Language and Culture)

Text in Afrikaans / Die proefskrif ondersoek die funksie van fonteine en putte in die religie van ou Israel. Die religie van die Hebreeuse Bybel word tradisioneel beskryf as 'n historiese religie waarin Jahwe, die god van Israel, fundamenteel gemoeid is met die verlossing van sy volk in die gang van die geskiedenis, terwyl die wêreld van die natuur van marginale belang is. Dit is egter duidelik dat die natuur in die vorm van haar grondwaterbronne 'n belangrike rol in ou Israel se leefwerêld gespeel het, nie alleen as lewegewende bronne in die droē fisiese Palestynse landskap nie, maar ook in hulle narratiewe en simboliese wêrelde. Fonteine en putte was kultiese plekke en heilige ruimtes waar teofanieē plaasgevind het, konings gekroon is, regsgedinge gevoer is, voorvadergeeste opgeroep is en die nageslag van ou Israel verseker is toe die voorvaders hulle toekomstige bruide by putte ontmoet het. Deur middel van die ou Nabye Oosterse ikonografie as hulpwetenskap in die interpretasieproses, is gevind dat die rede vir die sakrale waarde wat aan die waterbronne geheg is, opgesluit is in ou Israel se kosmologie wat hulle met hulle mitologies-gesinde en natuurvererende bure gedeel het. Daarvolgens ontspring fonteine uit die kosmiese onderaardse oeroseaan om lewe en vrugbaarheid te bring aan alles wat lewe. Die beeld het daartoe aanleiding gegee dat fonteine en putte metafories vir vroulike seksualiteit en vrugbaarheid gedien het. Die waterbronne tree ook as draers van hoop op. In verhale oor die wonderbaarlike ontstaan van fonteine in die wildernis deur lewensonderhoud aan die Israetiete tydens hulle woestynomswerwinge te voorsien. Ons kan met sekerheid aanneem dat ou Israel hulle watergate as lokaliteite van integrasie, sin en orde teen die aanslae van die chaosmagte ervaar het. Deur die eeue het die mensdom nagedink oor eksistensiele kwessles soos lewe en dood, vrugbaarheid en steriliteit, die redes vir rampe en oor wat die toekoms inhou. Dit is ten diepste religieuse vrae wat die vervloe bybelskrywers vir hulle tyd en omstandighede aangespreek het deur 'n refigurasie van Palestina se waterbronne. Grondliggend aan hierdie studie as 'n herevaluering van die natuur in die Hebreeuse Bybel om menslike wesens as deel van die natuur op te stel en nie as staande bo die natuur nie. / The dissertation investigates the function of springs and wells in the religion of ancient Israel. The religion of the Hebrew Bible has traditionally been descibed as a historical religion in which Yahweh, the god of Israel, was fundamentally concerned with the salvation of Yahweh's people In history in which the world of nature is of marginal interest. However, it is evident that nature in the form of its groundwater sources played an important role, not only as life giving sources in the arid physical environment of Palestine, but also in their narrative and symbolic worlds. Springs and wells served as cultic centres and sacred places where theophanies took place, kings were crowned, lawsuits conducted, ancestral spirits conjured up and the future progeny of Israel was ensured when patriarchs betrothed their future brides at wells. By means of ancient Near Eastern iconography as an interpretation aid, this study finds the reason for the sacred value attributed to groundwater sources in the cosmology of ancient Israel which she shared with her mythically-minded and nature-worshipping neighbours. Springs were believed to arise from the cosmic subterranean ooean to bring life and fertility to all living things. This image caused springs and wells to serve as metaphor of female sexuality and fertility. They also act as agents of hope in stories of miraculous springs in the desert which provide sustenance during the Israelites' desert wanderings. We can safely conclude that ancient Israel experienced their springs and wells as localities of integration, meaning and order amidst the threatening forces of chaos. Through the ages humankind reflected on existential questions regarding life and death, fertility and sterility, the reasons for disasters and what the future holds. These are profoundly religious questions addressed by the biblical authors for their time and circumstances by implementing a refiguration of the groundwater sources of Palestine. Ultimately this study serves to re-evaluate nature in the Hebrew Bible and to construe human beings not as standing above nature, but as part of nature. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D. Litt. et Phil. (Religious Studies)

Thesis (D. Litt. et Phil. (Biblical Studies)) / The Fertile Crescent, due to its geographical characteristics, has always been an area troubled with conflict and warfare. The men who participated in these wars, from ca 2000 BCE to 1000 BCE operated from an ethos which was governed by a system of rules, all which were conceived to be the creation of divine will, to which kings and their warriors (keymen) were subject. The cuneiform texts from Mari, Ugarit, Ebla, Amarna and others, have not only thrown light on the political, social, religious and military aspects of those turbulent times, but have also given insight into the formation of armies as well as the commanders who led those armies and the royal officials who governed cities and provinces, all appointed by the monarch in order to effect the smooth running of his kingdom. They also shed light on the formation of coalitions and alliances in order to promote peace, arrange marriages to the daughters of other ruling powers and to promote trade relations. These were no easy tasks, considering the diversity of peoples, the birth and fall of kingdoms and empires, and the ever shifting and changes of loyalties of greedy kings and their men, to attain power and conquest for themselves.. However, these texts also give glimpses of the human side of the king and the close relationships between himself and his men of authority, whilst the women of the court also played their role in some areas of the social field. The responses, of these people towards matters and events, whether they were confrontations, marriage alliances, trade ventures or hunting expeditions, occurred within an ever changing world yet, it was also a world with an ethos of ancient traditions, which did not disappear but instead remained, albeit in adapted or altered form, to be a part of their contextual reality. / Biblical Studies

The ancient Near Eastern cultures and the Babylonian Talmud are examined to ascertain whether they can elucidate Biblical descriptions of disease (many of which are mentioned by the Talmudic rabbis in the course of their discussions) to render a better understanding of the Biblical text. Archaeological evidence can verify the existence of tuberculosis, gout and leprosy in Old Testament times because these diseases leave specific lesions on ancient bones. The ancient Israelites used amulets and incantations to ward off or treat illnesses despite Biblical prohibitions. This use was echoed in both the ancient Near Eastern cultures and in Talmudic times because some rabbis realised their effectiveness, but the majority doubted their usefulness. Idolatry, necromancy and sorcery were practiced and demons played a role in illness. Physicians, healers, herbal remedies, therapies and folk medicine in Biblical and Talmudic times are investigated. / Biblical Archaeology / M.A. (Biblical Archaeology)

This study examines the metaphor of the shepherd in Zechariah 11:4-17, which is a prominent and significant one in the Hebrew Bible. It defines Yahweh‟s relationship with the nation of Israel and those who have faith in him. But Zechariah 11:4-17 presents a shepherd image which contradicts to the basic metaphor in the Hebrew Bible. The thesis of this study argues that the differing shepherd image in Zechariah 11:4-17 is the result of the rejection by the people of the responsible shepherd, which caused Yahweh to surrender his shepherd responsibility. It is a metaphor designed to punish an unrepentant Israel. Zechariah 11:4-17 furnishes an example of a situation where Yahweh surrendered his shepherding responsibilities to those irresponsible shepherds. This example should be incorporated into the said metaphor, so as an objective and comprehensive meaning may be achieved, and one should consider this metaphorical meaning in the study of the subject. / Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies / M. Th. (Old Testament)

The bull was a potent symbol of power, strength, and, to a lesser degree, fertility to the peoples of the ancient Near East from the twelfth century until 330 BCE. This symbolism was manifested in several iconographic motifs. These motifs reveal the bull as a manifestation of divine characteristics and as an expression of the power of man, and particularly the authority of the king. The use of these iconographic motifs was not consistent across the entire area of the ancient Near East; some differed in appearance and use in the different areas of the region, and many changed over time even in the same area. In all areas and during all periods the basic core symbolism stayed the same, and the bull was always held in a special respect. / Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies / M.A. (Ancient Near Eastern Studies)

Summaries in English and German / Text in German / The question is dealt with, whether or not the calls to joy in the book of Qoheleth are dependend from another source. Seven key-texts are taken as a basis (2:24-26; 3:12.13; 3:22; 5:17-19; 8:15; 9:7-10; 11,7-12,7) which have the form of ::titl"[i'~]-sayings and share the root "1.liU. Three further texts (2:1-11; 6:9; 7:14) are also relevant. In the exegesis the content, reasoning and contextual function of these texts are analyzed. Qoheleth quotes, comments on and corrects traditional views of wisdom. He sets them in polar structured arguments in which the calls to joy are significant since the arguments always lead to a double conclusion: a vanity statement and an ethical instruction. The latter form the books teaching on wisdom which consists of joy and the fear of God. In this way the calls to joy in the key texts function as a refrain which increases as the book progresses and becomes the main message. The theme of the joy of life is next examined in Old Testament, Egyptian, ancient Near Eastern, Greek and apocryphal texts. These leads to the conclusion that the call to joy in the book of Qoheleth comes closest to the Egyptian "heretical" harper's songs. These texts agree not only in the content and reasoning of joy, but also in the use of idioms und comparisons. These occur not just in the key texts but throughout the whole book. The "heretical" harper's songs were originally used in the cult of the dead. Later they were used at feasts and banquets. This makes it possible to interpret them in the same Egyptian complex of tradition as other belletristic texts, especially love songs. They can therefore be assigned with the calls to joy to the genre of feast and banquet poetry. Since the adoption of the Jove songs in the Song of Songs has already been shown, the same can now be said for the harper's songs. Presumably this happened through Canaanite influences in premonarchic times. / Es wird der Frage nachgegangen, ob in den Aufforderungen zur Lebensfreude des Buches Kohelet eine Vorlage rezipiert worden ist. Dazu werden sieben Kerntexte (2,24-26; 3,12.13; 3,22; 5,17-19; 8,15; 9,7-10; 11,7-12,7) zugrunde gelegt, welche durch die Wurzel n~tu und die Form des l11'"[1'~]-Spruchs miteinander verbunden sind. Drei weitere Texte gehiiren der Sache nach dazu (2,1-11; 6,9; 7,14). Diese Texte werden exegesiert, um sie nach ihren Inhalten, Begriindungen und ihrer kontextualen Funktion zu erfassen. Der Verfasser des Buches Kohelet zitiert, kommentiert und korrigiert traditionelle Ansichten der Weisheit. Dazu stellt er sie in polar strukturierte Argumentationseinheiten, in welchen die Aufforderungen zur Lebensfreude Signifikanz haben, da diese Argumentationseinheiten jeweils auf eine Nichtigkeitsaussage und eine ethische Anweisung hinaus laufen. Letzere bildet die Lebenslehre des Buches, die auf den Sii.ulen Lebensfreude und Gottesfurcht fuBt. Dabei bilden die Kerntexte der Lebensfreude einen Refrain, der im Fortgang des Buches gesteigert wird und am Ende als Hauptanliegen hervortritt. Dem Motiv der Lebensfreude wird daraufhin in alttestamentlichen, ii.gyptischen, altorientalischen, griechischen und apokryphen Texten nachgegangen. Dabei stellt sich heraus, da8 die Aufforderungen zur Lebensfreude im Buch Kohelet die griiBte Nii.he zu den "haretischen" Harfnerliedern Agyptens aufweisen. Zu diesen Texten gibt es Ubereinstimmungen nicht nur in den Inhalten und Beweggriinden des Lebensgenusses, sondern auch in der Verwendung einzelner Idiome und Vergleiche, und zwar nicht nur in den Kerntexten, sondern verstreut im Buch. In der Verwendungssituation der "hii.retischen" Harfnerlieder Iii.flt sich eine Verschiebung vom Totenkult zu Fest und Gelage aufzeigen. Dariiberhinaus lassen sie sich in Agypten in einen Traditionskomplex mit anderen Texten der schiinen Literatur, insbesondere den ii.gyptischen Liebesliedern stellen. So kann eine gemeinsame Gattungszuweisung mit den Aufforderungen zur Lebensfreude in der Fest- und Gelagepoesie erfolgen. Da fiir die Liebeslieder eine alttestamentliche Rezeption schon wahrscheinlich gemacht worden ist, kann diese nun auf die Harfnerlieder ausgedehnt werden. Dieser Traditionsweg verlief vermutlich iiber kanaanii.ische Vermittlung in vormonarchischer Zeit. / D.Th.(Old Testament)

L’intérêt historique suscité par la richesse des vestiges provenant d’Emar et d’Ougarit ainsi que de plusieurs autres cités de l’époque, notamment Alalaḫ, nous a poussé à nous intéresser à la répartition des pouvoirs en Syrie à l’époque du Bronze Récent, question pour laquelle peu d’études des synthèse ont été consacrées à l’heure actuelle.Nous concentrerons notre étude sur plusieurs villes à l’époque du Bronze Récent, depuis le début de la deuxième moitié de deuxième millénaire jusqu’au début de XIIe siècle av. J.-C.Certes, Il existe un pouvoir religieux, économique ; mais le plus souvent la notion de pouvoir sous-entend la présence d’une puissance politique à laquelle est soumise une communauté. Nous distinguerons donc les termes d’ « autorité » et de « pouvoir », ce dernier devant être considéré comme l’application et la manifestation de l’autorité.Les textes anciens représentent pour notre étude une documentation directe. Les tablettes provenant des cités syriennes de cette époque sont au cœur de notre étude. Il s’agit surtout de tablettes cunéiformes écrites en akkadien.Nous pensons qu’une recherche analytique et comparative nous aidera de mieux connaître les différents types de pouvoir en Syrie, de repérer les divers détenteurs du pouvoir au Bronze Récent et de définir les caractéristiques propres à l’organisation politique syrienne durant cette même période. / The historical interest generated by the rich archaeological remains from Emar and Ugarit as well as several other cities of the era, including Alalah, encouraged us to take an interest in the distribution of power in Syria at the Late Bronze Age, a question for which few synthesis studies have been devoted today. We focus our study on several cities during the Late Bronze Age, since the beginning of the second half of the second millennium to the early twelfth century BC.Certainly, there is a religious power and economic power, but more often the notion of power implies the presence of a political power which is subject to a community. We therefore distinguish the terms “authority” and “power”, the latter to be considered the application and demonstration of authority. The ancient texts represent a direct documentation for this study. The akkadian cuneiform tablets from the Syrian cities of this period are in the middle of our research.We believe that a comparative and analytical research will help us better understand the different types of power in Syria, to identify the various rulers of the Late Bronze Age and define the characteristics of the Syrian political organization during this period.

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The thesis of this dissertation is to explore the importance of Hebrew as contained in the Old Testament or Hebrew Canon, for a grasp of the spirituality or spiritualities of the people we encounter in these texts. Furthermore, to gauge the continued and extended importance of this language knowledge as it pertains to contemporary spirituality or spiritualities based upon these scriptures. This will be done with the laity and academia in mind and hence we will study these spiritualities as they pertain both to experience and academic enquiry. We will also explore the possible personal and societal transformation, which could result from such an investigation. In view of this, we will limit our scope to three test psalms all from Book I of the Psalter; and our assessment of the importance of Hebrew for Biblical Spirituality will be based on only three key areas, namely language, exegesis and continued meaning. / Christian Spirituality / M. Th. (Christian Spirituality)