Texte remanié de : Thèse de doctorat : Lettres : Heidelberg : 1983. / Bibliogr. p. 243-252.

Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti ir palyginti sveikatos kontrolės lokuso, savo ligos suvokimo ir pykčio ryšius hemodialize gydomų ir hemodializei besirengiančiųjų pacientų grupėse. Tyrime dalyvavo 74 hemodialize gydomi ir 53 hemodializei besirengiantieji. Hemodialize gydomi pacientai sudarė 58,3%, o hemodializei besiruošiantieji pacientai 41,7% tiriamųjų. Pacientų amžius svyravo nuo 21 iki 86 metų, amžiaus vidurkis – 59,03.Tyrimas buvo atliekamas Lietuvos sveikatos mokslų universiteto klinikų nefrologijos skyriuje, Šiaulų dializės centre UAB B. Braun Avitum ir Šiaulių Respublikinės ligoninės nefrologijos skyriuje. Šiame tyrime buvo naudojamas kiekybinis tyrimas, kurio metu buvo pateikta anketa. Ją sudarė: sveikatos kontrolės lokuso klausimynas ( MHLC), ligos suvokimo klausimyno atnaujinta versija ( IPQ – R), klinikinio pykčio klausimynas ( CAS) ir pateikti 5 papildomi klausimai nesusiję su minėtais klausimynais. Tyrimo rezultatai parodė, kad sveikatos kontrolės lokusas, savo ligos suvokimas ir pyktis turi tarpusavio sąsajų. Hemodializei besirengiančių ir hemodialize gydomų pacientų kitų įtakos sveikatos kontrolės lokuso ryšiai su pykčiu ir savo ligos suvokimo dimensijomis priklauso nuo sociodemografinių charakteristikų: amžiaus, lyties, išsilavinimo ir šeiminės padėties. Pagrindinės išvados parodė, kad hemodializei besirengiančių kitų įtakos sveikatos kontrolės lokusas yra susijęs su labiau išreikštu pykčiu ir pozityvesniu... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The aim of the study was to find and compare the links between health locus of control, illness perception and anger in hemodialysis and pre – hemodialysis groups . The study included 74 hemodialysis patients and 53 pre – hemodialysis patients. There were 58,3,% of hemodialysis patients and 41,7% of pre – hemodialysis patients. Age of patients was between 21 and 86, average age - 57,03 years old.The study was carried out in Lithuanian University of Health Sciences nephrology clinic, Šiauliai hemodialysis center UAB “B. Braun Avitum” and Šiauliai hospital nephrology clinic. It was used a quantitative survey – a questionnaire. It consisted of: Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale ( MHLC), Illness Perception Questionnaire ( IPQ – R), Clinical Anger Scale ( CAS) and there have been given 5 additional questions unrelated to these questionnaires. The results of search showed links between health locus of control, illness perception and anger. Health locus of control links with illness perception and anger in hemodialysis and pre – hemodialysis groups depended on sex, age, education, family status. The main consclusion demonstraits, that other influence health locus of control have links with much anger and much positive perception of illness according to treatment control dimension, but much negative perception of illness according to personal control, illness coherence and emotional representations dimensions in pre... [to full text]

研究目的：過去的心理生理學研究顯示，個體在壓抑生氣與表達生氣情緒時，分別對於情緒調節和生理反應上有著不同的作用機制。本研究試圖以Engebretson等人（1989）提出的「適配假說」（Matching Hypothesis），進一步延伸探討其對於後續睡眠的影響，並預期在引起受試者的生氣情緒後，若其當下所採用的生氣表達方式與自身所慣用的方式是一致的，則能有效地降低個體睡前的生理激發狀態，促使其恢復到先前的水準，因此對於個體後續睡眠的負面影響也會較小。 方法：本研究共收案35人(男12人，女23人)，對象為年齡介於20到35歲之間，身心健康的正常睡眠者。研究者先透過短式華人敵意量表，將受試者分類為高壓抑敵意特質組(HS)18人、高表達敵意特質組(HE)17人，之後再將其隨機分派到壓抑生氣(AI)或表達生氣(AO)其中一種實驗情境。實驗中，係透過高難度的認知作業來引發受試者的壓力和挫敗感，再於過程中不停地打斷其作答狀態來造成其煩擾，以達到生氣情緒的誘發；隨後再經由有/無給予機會讓受試者表達心情並對主試者(激怒者)進行評價，來達到表達/壓抑生氣的實驗操弄，之後即請其入睡。期間持續以Biopac MP150生理儀器來測量受試者的心跳速率(HR)、收縮壓(SBP)、舒張壓(DBP)和膚電反應(SCR)，以了解其於入睡前的生理激發與恢復狀態；後續以多頻道睡眠記錄儀（polysomnography, PSG）來進行夜間睡眠之記錄，並以受試者的自評睡眠狀況作為主觀睡眠品質的分析指標。 研究結果：在誘發生氣情緒後，不論是在表達生氣或壓抑生氣的情境下，HE都比HS有顯著更高的DBP上升反應。在恢復期期間，HE的DBP則有低於HS的傾向；AO比AI有更多的DBP恢復程度，以及較短的SCR恢復時間。而在適配情境下，受試者後續的HR恢復時間較短，且DBP的下降程度較多，此也支持了適配假說的觀點；然而，不論適配與否，對於後續的睡眠相關參數並無顯著的影響，此未支持本研究假設。再以2(特質)x 2(情境)之二因子獨立樣本變異數分析比較各組在睡眠結構上的差異，結果顯示階段二睡眠以及慢波睡眠的比例，皆有來自特質的主要效果；其中HS的階段二睡眠時間比例高於HE，HE的慢波睡眠時間比例則高於HS。另外，AO的慢波睡眠時間比例高於AI──顯示比起壓抑生氣，表達生氣的因應方式對於深睡期的增加可能較具正向的影響。最後，研究發現睡前SBP、DBP的上升皆和主觀入睡耗時的增加呈顯著正相關；PSG的檢查結果亦顯示，入睡期HR、SCR、SBP的上升和階段二睡眠潛時的增加呈顯著正相關；此外，當SCR的恢復時間越長，階段二睡眠潛時越長，顯示個體睡前較高的生理激發狀態和較慢的恢復速率，對於主客觀睡眠品質皆具有負面的影響。 結論：在經驗生氣情緒時，表達生氣相對而言是對於生理恢復狀態較為有利的因應方式；然而，「特質」不僅可能影響著生氣情緒當下的生理激起狀態，且對於後續的生理恢復亦具有一定之影響力。本研究支持了適配假說的觀點：當採用的生氣表達方式與自身所慣用的方式一致時，最能有效地降低心血管反應；然而，再去檢驗適配假說和後續睡眠品質之間的關係，並未發現符合預期的結果，故若欲以適配假說來預測後續較佳的睡眠品質，仍須更多相關的研究加以支持和驗證，且可能尚須納入其他重要變項加以探討，例如個人的認知風格、內在情緒調節策略等。最後，本研究結果再度彰顯了睡前的生理激發和恢復狀態對於後續睡眠歷程的影響力；而生理激發狀態在情緒、因應行為和睡眠間之關係所扮演的角色，也為急性失眠的病因機制提供了一種可能的註解。 / Introduction：From past studies it is known that anger suppression and anger expression may play different roles in emotion regulation and in psychophysiological response. Engebretson and his colleagues (1989) had proposed ‘Matching Hypothesis’-- that is, if one used his/her preferred mode of anger expression style in response to the instigation, then his/her cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) would be less elevated and would have a faster recovery rate of CVR than those who were engage in a manner of anger expression that was inconsistent with their preferred mode. To do a further study, we intend to know what would bring on in the following sleep if we used the two different anger expression style during the pre-sleep period. Besides, in according to Matching Hypothesis, we predict that if one expressed his/her anger in a preferred way, then this ‘matching’ state would make one’s physiological arousal effectively declined and would help it back to the baseline level more quickly; therefore, it would have less negative effect on the following sleep, and vice versa. Method：35 healthy individuals who has psychometric characteristic of high hostility were examined. All subjects’ preferred style of anger expression-- highly suppressive (HS) or highly expressive (HE), had been assessed by a self-report questionnaire. After the anger instigation, subjects were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions: anger in (AI) or anger out (AO), and then went to sleep. Biopac instrument and software were used to measure heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP) and skin conductance response (SCR). Besides, polysomnography (PSG) was used to record the nocturnal sleep. In addition, the subjects were asked to fill out the self-report questionnaires next morning, as a measurement of subjective sleep quality. Finally, statistic analyzed the influence of two variables (trait and condition) on the physical arousal level, recovery rate and sleep quality. Results：HE showed higher DBP elevation than HS, both in the two conditions. During the recovery phase, there was an inclination that HE showed lower DBP than HS; AO showed a higher DBP recovery level, and a shorter SCR recovery time, comparing to AI. Subjects in the matching state showed a shorter HR recovery time, and much DBP decline; however, no matter in the matching state or not, there was no difference in the nocturnal sleep quality. To view the sleep architecture, HS showed higher percentage of stage 2 sleep than HE, and HE showed higher slow-wave sleep percentage than HS. On the other hand, AO showed higher slow-wave sleep percentage than AI, suggesting that expressing anger seems to be much helpful for the promotion of slow-wave sleep. Finally, the findings demonstrated that before sleep, the elevation of SBP and DBP showed positive correlations with longer subjective sleep onset latency. Besides, the elevation of HR, SCR and SBP was positively correlated with the longer onset latency of stage 2 sleep. Furthermore, longer SCR recovery time accompanied longer onset latency of stage 2, indicating that both high arousal state and low recovery rate brought negative effects on the following sleep. Conclusions：The CVR results generally were consistent with Matching Hypothesis. However, the findings indicated that the matching/non-matching state couldn’t be merely used to predict the sleep quality. Therefore, there is still a need to do more research to figure it out. In addition, variables such as personal cognitive style and emotional regulation strategy, should be bring into the future studies. In conclusion, the findings pointed out that the physical arousal state during the pre-sleep period will impact on the following sleep process significantly, and it plays a important role in the relationships between emotion, coping behavior and sleep.

Thesis (MA (Theol.))-University of Pretoria, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references.

The diploma thesis focuses on human emotions and monitors their effects on the individual from the psychological and physiognomic point of view. It focuses on the development of ancient theatre and the function of masks. It consists of two parts - theoretical and practical. The practical part presents a set of latex masks that interpret the work of Erving Goffman The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.

The study aimed at giving a thick description of African families' experiences, views, cultural beliefs and interpretations of traumatic brain injury (TBI), and making recommendations for rehabilitation. It was conducted from the qualitative research paradigm, adopting a phenomenological research method. Twenty-two pairs of participants (patients and their caregivers )were interviewed about their perception of TBI. The semi-structured interviews were conducted at the participants' homes in Sesotho, and where necessary in their home languages. The consequences of TBI were found to follow universal trends (Oddy, 1984). However, participants' perceptions, as shaped by their experiences, views and cultural beliefs, were found to be unique. On analysing the gathered data, using inductive data analysis, it was found that African families' interpretations of TBI were based on beliefs about witchcraft, thwasa, Satanism, ancestral anger and God's wish. Based on these findings, rehabilitation services in the form of education, advocacy, networking and family therapy are recommended. / Psychology / M.A.(Clinical Psychology)

In my thesis I have focused on the issue of social networks and (social) bullying at elementary schools. In the first part of my paper I summarize the theoretical background and provide an overview of findings and opinions published by experts in relation to the issue of bullying and cyber-bullying, while in the second part of my paper I analyze the results of a research performed with the use of an anonymous questionnaire at four (4) elementary schools in the South Bohemia Region (Jihočeský kraj). The schools involved in the research were: two (2) schools with less than 270 pupils in the Prachatice region, one school with more than 270 pupils in the town of Prachatice and one school with more than 270 pupils in the city of České Budějovice. The purpose of the questionnaire investigation was to collect information on the extent in which aggressive behavior and cyber-bullying appear among pupils attending the 5th through 9th grades of the elementary school (age range 11-15). In the final part of the thesis I provide an overview of the results obtained through the research with the use of a BPAQ questionnaire (BussPerry Aggression Questionnaire and aggressive acts).

L’engagement politique constitue pour Platon un problème dans sa tentative de déterminer les caractéristiques du dirigeant idéal dans la République. Conceptualiser les motivations qui sous-tendent l’attachement au bien commun des auxiliaires et des gardiens dans la cité idéale sera l’objet de cette recherche. Pour ce faire, nous concentrerons notre analyse sur le thumoeides, partie intermédiaire de l’âme dans la théorie psychologique de la tripartition. Le thumoeides sous-tend des émotions morales, comme la réserve (aidos) et la colère, qui impliquent un rapport affectif de l’individu avec ses propres appétits et la sphère sociale qui l’entoure. Ce mémoire abordera l’un à la suite de l’autre les thèmes suivants : la définition du thumoeides comme motivation de l’âme tournée vers l’honneur, le rôle régulateur de la colère et de l’aidos vis-à-vis des appétits et de la sphère sociale, ainsi que l’influence de la musique et de l’éducation sur le thumoeides. Par cette démonstration, nous souhaitons mettre en lumière l’étroit lien qui existe pour Platon entre le thumoeides, la répression des appétits et l’attachement à la cité. C’est leur dynamique qui fonde psychologiquement la tâche politique de l’auxiliaire. / Political commitment is a problem in Plato’s attempt in the Republic to paint a picture of the ideal ruler. Identifying the motivations underlying the psychological bond between the ruling class (particularly the auxiliary class) and the city’s common good will be the object of this research. The key to this issue is the concept of thumoeides, the intermediary part of the soul in Plato’s psychological theory of tripartition. The thumoeides is the seat of a type of emotion, like awe (aidos) and anger, which commit the individual’s soul to a specific relation with both the appetites inside and the social world outside. This study will thus approach the following topics: the definition of thumoeides as a special motivation toward honor, the regulative role of anger and aidos regarding appetites and the social world, and finally the influence of music and education on the thumoeides development. Through this work, we wish to show the close link in Plato’s work between thumoeides, appetite’s control and the love for one’s own city as they all play a constitutive role for the political task of the auxiliary.

Abgelenktes Fahren gehört zu den Hauptursachen von Verkehrsunfällen und kann auf visuelle, manuelle oder kognitive Ablenkungsquellen zurückgeführt werden. Jede dieser Ablenkungsquellen wurde bereits mit negativen Effekten auf die Fahrerleistung in Zusammenhang gebracht. Obschon ein weitgehender Konsens über negative Auswirkungen von visueller/visuell-manueller Ablenkung besteht, sind die Wirkungen kognitiver Ablenkung auf Fahrfehler und Unfälle noch immer umstritten. Viele experimentelle Studien haben negative Auswirkungen kognitiver Ablenkung auf die Fahrerleistung berichtet. Demgegenüber stehen jedoch die Ergebnisse der Mehrzahl vorliegender „naturalistic driving studies“, die kein erhöhtes Unfallrisiko oder sogar protektive Effekte in diesem Zusammenhang fanden. Die aktuelle Entwicklung hin zu Mensch-Fahrzeug-Schnittstellen, die die Bedienung diverser Anwendungen mittels Sprachsteuerung ermöglichen, führt zu einem Anstieg von kognitiver Beanspruchung beim Fahren. Es ist daher von entscheidender Bedeutung, die Auswirkungen kognitiver Ablenkung auf die Fahrerleistung zu erfassen, um den Verantwortungsträgern in der Gesellschaft, den Regierungen und der Industrie eine Risikoabschätzung dieser Funktionen zu ermöglichen und die Sicherheit von Mensch-Fahrzeug-Schnittstellen zu erhöhen. Das Hauptziel dieser Dissertation bestand darin, die Effekte von kognitiver Ablenkung auf die Fahrerleistung zu untersuchen. Verschiedene Arten kognitiver Ablenkung, die sich beim Fahren unter realen Bedingungen häufig auf die Fahrer auswirken, wurden in dieser Arbeit kodiert und analysiert: kognitiv ablenkende Nebenaufgaben (z.B. telefonieren, singen), Fahreremotionen (z.B. Freude, Wut/Frustration, Traurigkeit) und Kombinationen von Fahreremotionen und Nebenaufgaben (z.B. Streit mit dem Beifahrer oder am Telefon). Bei der Untersuchung von Effekten kognitiver Ablenkung auf das Fahren sind Umwelt-, Situations- und Personenfaktoren zu berücksichtigen, da sie Mediator- und Moderatorvariablen bei der Erfassung des relativen Risikos von Ablenkung beim Fahren im Straßenverkehr darstellen. Daher folgte diese Dissertation dem ganzheitlichen Ansatz, so viele relevante Variablen wie möglich zu betrachten, die mit der Ausführung kognitiv ablenkender Tätigkeiten interagieren. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Daten der derzeit umfangreichsten „naturalistic driving study“ (the second Strategic Highway Research Program, SHRP 2) kodiert und analysiert, um möglichst viele Situationen, in denen eine kognitive Beanspruchung die Fahrerleistung potenziell beeinflusste, umfassend zu bewerten. Gleichzeitig wurde eine große Zahl von Mediator- und Moderatorvariablen betrachtet, die beim Fahren im realen Straßenverkehr auftreten (z.B. Einfluss von Kreuzungen, Wetter, etc.). Dieser Ansatz sollte das Verständnis und die externe Validität der Ergebnisse erhöhen und stellt einen wichtigen Schritt hin zu einem vollständigen Modell jener Variablen dar, die entweder zu unangemessen Verhaltensweisen und Unfällen beitragen oder sie reduzieren. Im Rahmen der Dissertation wurden vier Studien durchgeführt, die auf der Grundlage von zwei SHRP 2 Datensätzen die Zusammenhänge zwischen kognitiven und anderen Ablenkungsquellen, Umwelt-, Situations- und Personenfaktoren und Fahrerleistung untersuchten. Weiterhin wurden Kausalfaktoren in 315 vom Fahrer verursachten Unfällen und Beinaheunfällen, die mit Fahrerablenkung, Fahrerbeeinträchtigung oder keinem dieser Faktoren assoziiert waren, analysiert. Die erste Studie untersuchte die Auswirkungen von Wut beim Fahren und Streit mit dem Beifahrer oder jemandem am Telefon auf die Fahrerleistung. Wut beim Fahren ging mit einer Häufung aggressiver Verhaltensweisen einher, jedoch nicht mit einer Erhöhung von Fahrfehlern. Streitgespräche mit dem Beifahrer oder einer Person am Telefon (das heißt, wenn mutmaßlich das höchste Maß an kognitiver Ablenkung vorlag), schienen darüber hinaus mit keiner Form von unangemessenen Verhaltensweisen im Zusammenhang zu stehen. Die zweite Studie untersuchte, wie sich kognitive, visuelle und manuelle Fahrerablenkung, emotionale Beeinträchtigung sowie Umwelt-, Situations- und Persönlichkeitsfaktoren auf die Fahrerleistung auswirken. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen kognitiver Ablenkung und einer Verschlechterung der Fahrerleistung konnte nicht festgestellt werden. Die dritte Studie replizierte und erweiterte Ergebnisse der zweiten Untersuchung auf der Grundlage eines größeren Datensatzes, bestehend aus Fahrsegmenten, die Unfällen, Beinaheunfällen und Baselines vorausgingen und weder emotionale noch andere Fahrerbeeinträchtigungen enthielten. In Übereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen der ersten und zweiten Studie, wurde keine Assoziation zwischen kognitiver Ablenkung und einer verschlechterten Fahrerleistung festgestellt. Bei der vierten Studie handelte es sich um eine vergleichende Analyse von Risikofaktoren für Unfälle/ Beinaheunfälle, die mit verschiedenen Arten von Ablenkung, Beeinträchtigung oder keinem von beiden, assoziiert waren. Unfälle, denen eine kognitive Ablenkung vorausgegangen war, waren vor allem mit von Ablenkung unabhängigen Fahrfehlern verbunden - genau wie die Unfälle, denen keine beobachtbare Nebentätigkeit vorausgegangen war. Dieses Ergebnis lässt vermuten, dass in früheren „naturalistic driving studies“, das Unfallrisiko von kognitiv ablenkenden Nebentätigkeiten eventuell sogar überschätzt wurde. Zusammenfassend legen die Ergebnisse die Schlussfolgerung nahe, dass kognitive Ablenkung durch beobachtbare emotionale Beeinträchtigung, (überwiegend) kognitiv ablenkende Nebenaufgaben oder die Kombination dieser beiden Faktoren, nicht mit sichtbaren negativen Auswirkungen auf die Fahrerleistung im tatsächlichen Straßenverkehr assoziiert werden kann. Im Gegensatz dazu hatten ablenkende Tätigkeiten, die zu Blickabwendungen von der Straße führen, und solche, die mit einem besonders hohen Unfallrisiko assoziiert werden, die größte Wahrscheinlichkeit Fahrfehler und Unfälle zu verursachen. / Driver distractions are among the leading causes of motor vehicle accidents. Such distractions can stem from competing visual, manual, or cognitive resources, all of which have been associated with detrimental effects on driving performance. Although the negative impacts of visual/visual-manual distraction are widely agreed upon, the effects of cognitive load on driving errors and crash risk are still debated. On the one hand, numerous experimental studies have shown adverse effects of cognitive distraction on driving performance. In contrast, most existing naturalistic driving studies have either not revealed increased crash/near-crash risk due to cognitive distraction, or have even reported a safety benefit. The number of in-vehicle tasks placing cognitive load on the driver is increasing in recent years due to the development of auditory human–machine interfaces such as voice control for several functions. This has enhanced the need to assess how cognitive distraction affects driving performance. These results are necessary to provide society, government, and industry with valid risk estimates, which will affect decision making regarding how to enhance the safety of using in-vehicle human-machine interfaces while driving. Therefore, the main objective of this thesis was to investigate how cognitive distraction affects driving performance. Different types of cognitive distraction that commonly affect most drivers in naturalistic conditions were coded and analyzed in the present thesis, including: cognitively distracting secondary tasks (e.g., talking on the phone, singing), driver emotion (e.g., happiness, anger/frustration, sadness), and combinations of driver emotion and secondary task demand (e.g., arguing with a passenger or with someone on the phone). Environmental, situational, and individual factors cannot be ignored when investigating the effects of cognitive distraction on driving performance, as they are mediating and moderating variables for estimating distraction relative risk in naturalistic driving. Therefore, a holistic approach guided this thesis towards incorporating as many important variables as possible that interact with the engagement in cognitively distracting activities. Data from the largest naturalistic driving study ever conducted (the second Strategic Highway Research Program, SHRP 2) were coded and analyzed to comprehensively assess many situations in which cognitive load potentially affected driving performance. Further, the goal was to simultaneously consider many possible mediating and moderating variables existent in real-world traffic (such as intersection influences, weather, etc.). This approach should increase understanding and external validity of the results, as well as represent an important step towards building a complete model depicting variables that contribute to or mitigate aberrant driving behaviors and crash risk. Four different analyses focused on two SHRP 2 data subsets to assess the relationship between cognitive and other distraction sources, environmental, situational, and individual factors, as well as driving performance. In addition, contributing factors in 315 at-fault crash and near-crash events associated with driver distraction, driver impairment, or neither of the two were analyzed. The first study examined driving performance in relation to driving anger as well as arguing with a passenger or with someone on the phone. Results showed that driving anger was associated with more frequent aggressive driving behaviors without increasing driving error frequency. Furthermore, when a conflict arose with a passenger or with someone on the phone (i.e., when the level of cognitive distraction was expected to be highest), there did not appear to be a link to any type of aberrant driving behavior. The second study analyzed driving performance based on cognitive, visual, and manual driver distraction, emotional impairment, as well as environmental, situational, and individual factors. Cognitive distraction was not associated with any decline in driving performance. The purpose of the third analysis was to replicate and extend the second study’s effects based on a larger data sample of driving segments preceding crashes, near-crashes, and matched baselines, of drivers not exhibiting emotional or other impairment types. Corroborating the first and second study’s results, there was no association between cognitive distractions and impaired driving performance. Finally, the fourth study compared the risk factors of crashes/near-crashes associated with either different driver distraction types, impairment, or neither. Crashes preceded by cognitive distraction were mainly associated with driving errors unrelated to the secondary task demands, as were the crashes preceded by no observable secondary task. This finding suggests that previous studies analyzing naturalistic driving data may have even overestimated the crash risk of cognitively distracting secondary task engagement. In summary, this thesis provides compelling evidence that cognitive distraction, either through observable emotional impairment, (mainly) cognitively distracting secondary tasks, or the combination of both, has no apparent relation with poorer driving performance observable in real-world traffic. On the contrary, distracting activities requiring the driver’s gaze to move away from the forward roadway and those associated with a particularly high crash risk had the highest chances of causing driving errors and crashes.

Background: The fundamental aim of utilizing a message strategy is to develop advertising content that captures consumer attention and thereby generates favourable consumer behaviour. Two common approaches in advertising are (i) emotional appeals and (ii) rational appeals. Literature has found emotional appeals to be the superior alternative, but are yet to fully grasp the dynamics of the different emotional appeals as several researchers have called for further establishment and knowledge in the area. In this study, a new approach to emotional appeals has been taken in terms of including a wider range of emotions than has been previously done, and the aim is therethrough to receive a more nuanced and complete understanding of the phenomenon emotional appeals. Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explain the different effects of emotional message appeals on purchase intention. Methodology: This study utilized an explanatory purpose along with a deductive, quantitative research approach, as well as a cross-sectional research design to test a conceptual model based on six hypotheses. The data collection method was completed through the distribution of a self-administered questionnaire in various online forums. The questionnaire received 212 valid responses. Findings: The hypotheses for four out of the six basic emotions were tested. The Happiness appeal showed to have the most positive effect on purchase intention (0.412), whilst Fear (0.269) and Sadness (0.273) also displayed positive tendencies, even though the Sadness appeal had been hypothesized to have negative effects on purchase intention. Furthermore, the Disgust appeal was - as hypothesized - suggested to have a negative influence on purchase intention (-0.277). The Surprise and Anger appeals displayed insignificant F-values and could thereby not be further investigated. Conclusion: Based on the four remaining emotions an adjusted conceptual model was presented in which one can observe the varying effects of emotional message appeals on purchase intention. This model can be valuable for marketers and marketing practitioners looking to apply emotional appeals as part of their marketing strategies, as well as to researchers looking to more fully understand the dynamics of emotions and emotional appeals in marketing contexts. Last, this study calls for further establishment within the field of emotional appeals in terms of gathering insights into the fluidity of emotions. / <p>Appendix 3 is in a separate file.</p>