In this thesis project, we study the field of high-dispersion spectroscopy and methods for extracting the spectrum of circumstellar objects such as exoplanets from the combined signal of a stellar system. One of the only techniques for detecting absorption lines in exoplanetary atmospheres is to directly image a planet and record the reflected light. However, exoplanets are incredibly faint compared to the parent star and are often completely obscured in any images of the system. We utilize techniques such as high-dispersion spectroscopy (HDS) and high contrast imaging (HCI) in order to capture the planetary signal and develop methods for reducing only the stellar light while leaving the planet relatively untouched.   We investigate a method for removing the scattered starlight by utilizing the separate spectra of the star and the planet, where the signal from the objects will be spread out according to a point spread function (PSF) and laid on top of each other. By empirically determining the shape of the stellar PSF, reference profiles can be created for each wavelength and subtracted from the entire signal, revealing the planetary spectrum. To achieve this, we have constructed a spectrum extraction algorithm, written in Python 3.6, for use on the spectra of directly imaged exoplanetary systems. Additionally, we discuss many of the problems which may arise when reducing cross-dispersed echelle spectra and attempt to solve them with the algorithm.   To assess our algorithm, we utilize spectral images of the system  Pictoris, taken with the high-dispersion spectrograph CRIRES, and three model exoplanetary systems of varying brightness. When extracting the spectrum of the planets, we find that the method employed for constructing the reference stellar PSFs is partially flawed and leaves a substantial amount of residual stellar light in the reduced images. This leads to difficulties with identifying any spectral absorption lines and an alternative method is likely necessary. Nonetheless, the algorithm is found to successfully extract the spectrum and identify spectral lines of an exoplanetary atmosphere if the planet is sufficiently bright, although only for theoretically unrealistic luminosities. We expect that our algorithm can be improved upon with more well-researched methods for reducing the starlight and by using data recorded with spectrographs of even higher dispersive capabilities, such as CRIRES+, METIS, or HIRES.

Erosion has a long history in science and is used in many different fields today, for example in geology for coastal erosion and in the oil industry for pipe erosion. It is very difficult to study erosion both analytically. Numerically it is difficult due to moving and shape-changing boundaries. Here we develop a numerical model in 3D using the Lattice-Boltzmann method, which is good at simulating complex moving boundaries, and erosion capabilities are implemented. Both laminar and turbulent flow can be modelled with this program. Using an experimentally derived model for the mass change due to erosion in clay and mud-type objects, one can derive equations predicting that the volume of a sphere should, due to erosion, scale as V ∼ −t2. This is also observed with simulations. The shapes of a double sphere with different orientations and a cube in laminar flow we find to have similar power law exponent P, P = 2±0.1. But a cube eroding in Re = 800 had no power law behaviour, meaning that the current analytical framework is incomplete. The possibility of a more general framework is presented for future research. Different Reynolds number also affected the power law behaviour and the shape change over time for the different solids. Very little research has been made for erosion of planetesimals, but it has been argued that erosion can be relevant to their fate. Using the same erosion model, an equation of the erosion time is found for laminar flows and for a sphere. Simulation results find that the equation works within an order of magnitude for turbulent flows, a double sphere and a cube. This gives an estimate of the erosion time t∗ of planetesimals to be t∗ ∼ 1s, given a size of radius equal to 10cm and 1km, an orbital eccentricity e > 10−2 and a distance at r = 1 a.u. Implying that orbits for planetesimals with low eccentricity might be favoured.

The so-called 'cosmic web', comprising cosmic voids and galaxy clusters, has been proven to be extremely sensitive to deviations from General Relativity. This could be further investigated by future large-scale surveys, such as with the European Space Agency satellite Euclid. In this study, the parameter |fR0| from f(R) gravity is constrained by considering the Euclid survey specications to predict the observed numbers of voids and clusters in bins of redshift, mass and, only for voids, density contrast. From these values, the Fisher matrix is computed for three values of |fR0|, 10-4, 10-6 and 10-8, by assuming a flat Universe with a component that mimics the cosmological constant. The probability density functions are obtained for |fR0| and seven other parameters from the fiducial model considered (ns, h, Ωb, Ωm, σ8, w0 and wa).

Chameleons are scalar fields coming from modied gravity theories and can be possible explanations for Dark Energy. They cause a fifth force and have a screening mechanism which allows this force to avoid solar system constraints. In this thesis, astrophysical consequences of the potential presence of the chameleon field will be studied. More precisely, the difference between the hydrostatical and the weak lensing mass of galaxy clusters due to the effect of the chameleon fifth force is discussed.

This report will first give a brief background on asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars and the characteristics that make them interesting to study. Some methods and tools used in the field are then introduced, before the photometric variability of these stars is investigated. This is achieved by using data from dynamical models of AGB stars with differing chemical abundances. The R, J and K bands of the UBVRI system are specifcally investigated to explore whether these are good candidates for AGB photometric and spectroscopic research. Lastly, the molecular features at these wavelengths are investigated to understand the impact that they have on the photometric variability during the pulsation cycle and which molecules are most prominent in this.

Context. The Martian methane and water cycle are subject of ongoing research through simulation. Exchange with the subsurface has a potentially strong impact, but is often neglected. Aims. For methane, I determine if adsorption with an increased enthalpy can explain the observed seasonal variations and conflicting observations by the Trace Gas Orbiter and the Curiosity rover. For water, the impact of adsorption and ice formation in the subsurface on the global cycle is studied. A new way of initializing the soil, by running a decoupled subsurface model, is tested. Depths of stable subsurface ice and subsurface water distributions are studied. Methods. A General Circulation Model (GCM) is used with a purely diffusive subsurface model. For methane, different initial states, source scenarios, and decay times are tested. For water, a model without an active atmosphere is implemented to provide an initial state. The effect of the subsurface with this initial state on the full atmospheric water cycle is tested. Results. For methane, a strong influence on the global methane cycle is observed. Seasonal variations measured at Gale Crater are reproduced, but the conflicting observations cannot be explained by adsorption. For water, the new initialization can be used without completely disrupting the water cycle. It leads to a generally wetter atmosphere, in conflict with observations. Found ice table depths do not match well with observations, but ice profiles reproduce previous findings. Conclusion. Methane adsorption is able to partly explain observed variations, but cannot be the only process to influence methane abundances. The new initialization method for water works well in principle, but a more refined model is needed for more realistic results.

<p>Optical lucky imaging polarimetry of HL Tau and XZ Tau in the Taurus-Auriga molecular cloud was carried out with the instrument PolCor at the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT). The results show that in both the V- and R-band HL Tau show centrosymmetric structures of the polarization angle in its northeastern outflow lobe (degree of polarization ~30%). A C-shaped structure is detected which is also present at near-IR wavelengths (Murakawa, 2008), and higher resolution optical images (Stapelfeldt, 1995). The position angle of the outflow is 47.5+-7.5 degrees, which coincides with previous measurements and the core polarization is observed to decrease with wavelength and a few scenarios are reviewed. Measuring the outflow witdh versus distance and wavelength shows that the longer wavelengths scatter deeper within the cavity wall of the outflow. In XZ Tau the binary is partially resolved, it is indicated by an elongated intensity distribution. The polarization of the parental cloud is detected in XZ Tau through the dichroic extinction of starlight. Lucky imaging at the NOT is a great way of increasing the resolution, shifting increases the sharpness by 0.1 asec and selection the sharpest frames can increase the seeing with 0.4 asec, perhaps more during better conditions.</p>

<p>Syftet med denna kvalitativa undersökning var att ta reda på hur barn förklarar att det blir natt. En intervjustudie gjordes med 21 skolbarn i år tre. Barnens svar kategoriserades enligt två olika svarsmodeller, tidigare utarbetade av Baxter och Brewer. Analysen av resultaten visade att barnens svar kunde tolkas olika beroende på vilken modell som användes. Även undersökningsmetoden visade sig vara avgörande för de svar vi fick. Vår undersökning gjordes ur ett sociokulturellt perspektiv där språkets nyanser och användandet av artefakter som tankeredskap legat till grund för resultaten och vår tolkning. Det visade sig att flera barn hade en vetenskaplig bild av fenomenet men saknade begrepp för att synliggöra detta. Dessa barn kunde med hjälp av papper, pennor och sitt kroppsspråk förtydliga sina tankar.</p>

<p>The X-ray Multi-mirror Mission, XMM-Newton was launched by the European Space Agency, ESA, in 1999. XMM-Newton carries six cameras, including a silicon pn-junction Charge Coupled Device, or pn-CCD camera. This camera has six operating modes, spatially as well as time resolved. The main objective of this project is to refine the Burst mode energy correction in order to align the measured energy spectra observed in the Burst mode with the spectra taken in the Full Frame mode. An observation of the line-rich supernova remnant called Cassiopeia A is used to evaluate the line positions in each mode such that the energy correction function used for the alignment can be modified accordingly. The analysis further treats the application of the correction on a source with a continuous spectrum, the Crab nebula. Discussion shows how to reduce eventual residuals in the Crab spectrum by modifying the correction function while keeping the alignment of the Cas-A spectra. The final product is an update of the corresponding published calibration file.</p>

<p><p>Med utgångspunkt från den teoretiska bakgrunden, definitionen av svarta hål och deras generella egenskaper har jag studerat villkor för bildandet av svarta hål från döende singulära stjärnor. Supernovaprocessen beskrivs tillsammans med hur neutronstjärnor kan påverkas av destabiliserande mekanismer som t.ex. kaonkondensation. Olika observationer samt alternativa teorier läggs fram som argument och motargument. Utifrån detta underlag drar jag slutsatsen att svarta hål kan existera i fler varianter än vad som hittills antagits, främst i form av s.k. lågmassiva svarta hål på 1,5-1,8 M_sol.</p><p> </p><p>Vidare skildras möjligheten att producera mikroskopiska svarta hål i LHC-acceleratorn (Large Hadron Collider) i CERN, de kontroverser som omgärdar detta fenomen och de kunskaper som skulle kunna vinnas från kontrollerade observationer av sådana objekt. Den generella slutsatsen här är det ofrånkomliga mötet mellan partikelfysik och astrofysik för att få tillgång till de allra djupaste insikterna om det universum vi lever i.</p></p> / <p>Building on the theoretical background, definition of black holes and their general characteristics, I have studied some conditions for the formation of black holes from dying singular stars. The supernova process is described along with the influence on neutron stars by destabilising mechanism such as kaon condensation. Various observations as well as alternative theories are presented for argumentation. From this material I draw the conclusion that black holes can exist in more varieties than has been previously assumed, foremost in the shape of low-massive black holes with masses between 1.5 and 1.8 M_sun.</p><p> </p><p>Furthermore the possibility to produce microscopic black holes in the LHC accelerator (Large Hadron Collider) at CERN is portrayed, together with the controversies that currently surround this phenomenon and the knowledge that could be won from controlled observations of such objects. The general conclusion here is the unavoidable meeting between particle physics and astrophysics in order to access the deepest insights about the Universe we inhabit.</p>