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This article has been published online on 21st May 2014, in Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vac (Vol.32, Issue 4): http://scitation.aip.org/content/avs/journal/jvsta/32/4/10.1116/1.4878815?aemail=author DOI: 10.1116/1.4878815 This article may be accessed via the issue's table of contents at this link: http://scitation.aip.org/content/avs/journal/jvsta/32/4?aemail=author The surface chemistry of the bis(tri-n-butylphosphane) copper(I) acetylacetonate, [(nBu3P)2Cu(acac)], and the thermal atomic layer deposition (ALD) of Cu2O using this Cu precursor as reactant and wet oxygen as co-reactant on SiO2 substrates are studied by in-situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The Cu precursor was evaporated and exposed to the substrates kept at temperatures between 22 °C and 300 °C. The measured phosphorus and carbon concentration on the substrates indicated that most of the [nBu3P] ligands were released either in the gas phase or during adsorption. No disproportionation was observed for the Cu precursor in the temperature range between 22 °C and 145 °C. However, disproportionation of the Cu precursor was observed at 200 °C, since C/Cu concentration ratio decreased and substantial amounts of metallic Cu were present on the substrate. The amount of metallic Cu increased, when the substrate was kept at 300 °C, indicating stronger disproportionation of the Cu precursor. Hence, the upper limit for the ALD of Cu2O from this precursor lies in the temperature range between 145 °C and 200 °C, as the precursor must not alter its chemical and physical state after chemisorption on the substrate. 500 ALD cycles with the probed Cu precursor and wet O2 as co reactant were carried out on SiO2 at 145 °C. After ALD, in situ XPS analysis confirmed the presence of Cu2O on the substrate. Ex-situ spectroscopic ellipsometry indicated an average film thickness of 2.5 nm of Cu2O deposited with a growth per cycle of 0.05 Å/cycle. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) investigations depicted a homogeneous, fine, and granular morphology of the Cu2O ALD film on SiO2. AFM investigations suggest that the deposited Cu2O film is continuous on the SiO2 substrate.

Atomlagenabscheidung (ALD, Atomic Layer Deposition) ist als präzise Technik zur Abscheidung dünner Schichten bekannt. Mittels wechselweisen Einleitens von Precursorgasen in einen Reaktor erzeugt der Prozess auch auf strukturierten Substraten gleichmäßige dünne Schichten. Durch die selbstsättigende Natur der zu Grunde liegenden Reaktionen sind sowohl die Wachstumsrate als auch die Zusammensetzung wohldefiniert, weshalb sich Atomlagenabscheidung beispielsweise zur Herstellung nanoskopischer Bauelemente im Bereich der Mikroelektronik eignet. Obwohl Aluminiumoxid vermehrt Aufmerksamkeit für seine hohe Bandlücke (~9 eV) sowie die relativ hohe Dielektrizitätskonstante (k ~ 9) geerntet hat, ist oftmals trotz vielseitiger Untersuchungen der anwendbaren Precursorpaare nur wenig über die strukturellen Eigenschaften sowie die Wachstumskriterien der resultierenden Schichten bekannt. In dieser Arbeit wurde eine kombinierte Simulationsmethode entwickelt, mit der sich Atomlagenabscheidung mittels elementarer Reaktionen auf beliebig strukturierten Substraten simulieren lässt. Molekulardynamische Berechnungen ermöglichen dabei atomare Genauigkeit, wohingegen die Ankunft der individuellen Precursoratome durch Kinetic Monte Carlo-Methoden dargestellt werden. Diese Aufteilung erlaubt die Kopplung der molekulardynamischen Präzision mit den Größenordnungen einer KMC-Simulation, welche prinzipiell die Betrachtung von Milliarden von Atomen zulässt. Durch asynchrone Parallelisierung mit bis zu tausenden Arbeiterprozessen wird zudem die Effizienz gegenüber einer herkömmlichen Molekulardynamiksimulation ausreichend erhöht, um binnen weniger Stunden mehrere Abscheidungszyklen nahezu unabhängig von der Größe des betrachteten Raumes, welche im Bereich von Quadratmikrometern liegen kann, zu simulieren. Zur abschließenden Validierung des Modells und seiner Implementierung werden einerseits Versuche einfacher Schichtwachstumsprozesse unternommen, andererseits wird die Atomlagenabscheidung des wohluntersuchten Precursorpaares Trimethylaluminium (TMA, Al(CH3)3) und Wasser simuliert und die resultierende Schicht auf Übereinstimmung mit bestehenden Daten geprüft.

Gegenstand dieser Arbeit ist die Modifizierung von Oberflächen durch die Abscheidung alternierender Schichtsysteme auf Kohlenstofffasern und die Abscheidung von Aluminiumoxid auf organischen Membranen. Im ersten Kapitel wird das Vorgehen zur Abscheidung von organischen und anorganischen Schichten auf Kohlenstofffasern mittels der Atomlagenabscheidung und der oberflächeninitiierten Gasphasenabscheidung betrachtet. Dabei wird als Erstes auf die Abscheidung von Einzellagen und deren Optimierung eingegangen sowie im Anschluss auf die Übertragung dieser Parameter auf die Abscheidung von alternierenden Multilagensystemen. Mittels elektronenmikroskopischen-Untersuchungen, Rasterelektronenmikroskopie und energiedispersiver Röntgenspektroskopie, wird die Abscheidung der Materialien untersucht. Weiterhin können mit Hilfe von thermogravimetrischen Analysen die Oxidationsbeständigkeit der beschichteten Kohlenstofffasern sowie die einzelnen Schichtdicken bestimmt werden. Im zweiten Kapitel wird auf die Beschichtung von organischen Membranen eingegangen. Das Hauptaugenmerk liegt dabei auf der Beschichtung von nicht-hierarchisch und hierarchisch strukturierten Membranen mit Aluminiumoxid. Dafür werden die Atomlagenabscheidung und die Grenzflächenreaktion der Gasphase mit der im Feststoff gebundenen Flüssigphase angewendet. Unter Anwendung dieser beiden Verfahren ist es gelungen, dünne und gleichmäßige Schichten auf den Membranen abzuscheiden. Die Charakterisierung erfolgte mittels Rasterelektronenmikroskopie und energiedispersiver Röntgenspektroskopie. Zum Schluss wurden Filtrationsexperimente zum Vergleich der Stabilität und Durchflussraten der beschichteten mit den unbeschichteten Membranen durchgeführt.

Cette thèse conclut 3 années d'études doctorales sur le "dépôt de couches atomiques (ALD) de nitrure de bore (BN)". Le but de ce travail a été d'adapter la voie des céramiques dérivées de polymères (PDC) à la technique ALD pour la croissance de films minces de h-BN et l'élaboration de nanostructures fonctionnelles. Tout d'abord, un nouveau procédé d'ALD sans ammoniac en deux étapes, comprenant une croissance par ALD à basse température (80 °C) de polyborazine (PBN) à partir de 2,4,6-trichloroborazine et d'hexaméthyldisilazane suivi un traitement thermique à haute température sous atmosphère contrôlée a été développé. Ainsi, des films minces uniformes et homogènes de BN ont pu être déposés sur divers substrats. Le caractère autolimité des réactions mises en jeu ainsi que l'homogénéité des films sur des supports très structurés ont été vérifiés. De ce fait des nanostructures fonctionnelles BN ont été réalisées à partir de substrats ou de templates de dimensionnalité variée. Leurs applications en tant que revêtements protecteurs et comme filtres et éponges absorbantes pour purifier les eaux polluées par des hydrocarbures ont en particulier été étudiées. Enfin, un deuxième procédé ALD basse température (85-150°C) utilisant le tri(isopropylamino)borane et la méthylamine comme précurseurs a été préalablement étudié afin de confirmer l'adaptabilité de la voie PDC et la technique ALD. Des films minces de BN ont été obtenus sur des substrats plans et il a été prouvé que les vapeurs de tri(isopropylamino)borane peuvent infiltrer des fibres de polyacrylonitrile électrofilées.Ce travail a été entièrement réalisé à l'Université de Lyon et a reçu le soutien financier du China Scholarship Council (CSC) pour la bourse de doctorat ainsi que de l'Agence Nationale de la Recherche (projet n° ANR-16-CE08-0021-01) / This thesis achieves 3 years of PhD studies on “Atomic layer deposition (ALD) of boron nitride (BN)”. The aim of this PhD work is to adapt the polymer derived ceramics (PDCs) route to the ALD technique for h-BN thin film growth and elaboration of functional nanostructures. A novel two-step ammonia-free ALD process, which includes ALD deposition of polyborazine at low temperature (80 °C) from 2,4,6-trichloroborazine and hexamethyldisilazane followed by post heat treatment under controlled atmosphere, has been established. Conformal and homogeneous BN thin films have been deposited onto various substrates. The self-limitation of the reactions on flat substrates and the conformality of the films on structured substrates have been verified. Functional BN nanostructures have thus been fabricated using substrates or templates with different dimensionalities. In particular, their applications as protective coatings as well as filter and absorber to purify polluted water from organic/oil hav e been investigated. Finally, a second low temperature (85-150 °C) ALD process using tri(isopropylamine)borane and methylamine as precursors has preliminary been studied in order to confirm the adaptability of PDCs route to ALD technique. BN thin films have been grown onto flat substrate and it has been proven that tri(isopropylamino)borane vapor can infiltrate into electrospun polyacrylonitrile fibers.This work was carried out at University of Lyon and financially supported by the National Research Agency (project n° ANR-16-CE08-0021-01)

The work carried out as a part of this thesis has been focussed on understanding different aspects of the chemical vapor deposition process namely, ALD / MOCVD. A large part of the thesis is aimed at solving the problem of a single-source precursor for the MOCVD process to obtain substituted metal oxide thin films. For a chemical vapor deposition technique, it is important to understand the requisite salient features of precursor for deposition of thin films. For this purpose, not only is the structural characterization of the chemical precursor is required but also an in-depth thermal analysis of the precursor to know its vapor pressure. Vapor pressure of a metalorganic complex is one of the important properties to evaluate the applicability of a metalorganic complex as a MOCV/ALD precursor. The thesis discusses a novel approach to use thermal analysis as a tool to gauge the viability of substituted metal “single source” precursor for MOCVD/ALD. The other half deals with material characterization of thin films grown by an ALD process using hydrogen and Ti(OiPr)2(tbob)2 as precursors. The films were further studied for their potential application as high-k dielectric in DRAM applications. The first chapter is an overview of topics that are relevant to the work carried out in this thesis. The chapter focuses on the description of techniques used for thin film deposition. A detailed review of CVD-type techniques (ALD/ MOCVD) is then given. Chapter1 reviews the various process parameters involved in ALD,i.e. film growth(specifically as a function of the reactant pulse length, the nature of the chemical reactant/precursor and that of the metal precursor, and purge length) and growth temperature. Following the discussion of ALD, CVD and its growth kinetics are also discussed. Chapter 1 then outlines a holistic understanding of precursors, followed the differences in requirement for using them in ALD and MOCVD. Further, an introduction to the titanium oxide (Stoichiometric titanium dioxide and various Magneli phases) system, its phase diagram, oxide properties and their applications is given. Chapter 1 concludes by delineating the scope of the work carried out which is presented in the thesis. The second chapter deals with the synthesis of a series of substituted metal “single source” precursors to be used for MOCVD of substituted metal oxides thin films. The precursor complexes were of the type AlxCr1-x (acac)3 where 0<x<1. The complexes were synthesized using the novel approach of co-synthesis and were characterized by various spectroscopic techniques. Single crystal X-ray diffraction at low temperature was carried out to understand the substitution of metal in the complex crystallographically. The substituted metal complexes synthesized and characterized in chapter 2 were further evaluated for their viability as single source precursors for MOCVD application, using thermo-gravimetry as discussed in chapter 3. Vapor pressure of these complexes was determined by using the Langmuir equation, while the enthalpies of submission and evaporation were calculated using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. One of the composition of the series of substituted metal complexes, viz., Al0.9Cr0.1(acac)3, was employed on MOCVD reactor as precursor to obtain thin films on three substrates, Si(100), fused silica, and polycrystalline x- alumina, simultaneously. The resultant thin films were characterized using XRD, electron microscopy, FTIR, EDS, X-ray mapping, and UV-vis spectroscopy. Chapter 4 deals with the growth of titanium oxide thin films using ALD. The metal precursor used was Ti(OiPr)2(tbob)2 and the reactant gas was hydrogen. Hydrogen, a reducing gas, was deliberately used to obtain the reduced defect oxide phases of titanium, commonly called Magneli phases. The growth rate of films grown on p-Si(100) was studied with respect to the substrate temperature, vaporizer temperature, pulse duration of metal precursor and pulse duration of the reactive gas. Also, the concept of complementarity of a reaction and self-limiting behavior in a true ALD process was illustrated. The deposition conditions such as substrate temperature and reactive gas flows have been varied to optimize the phase content and the morphology of the films. The films grown were characterized to determine the various phases of titanium oxide present using XRD, TEM, FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and UV-vis spectroscopy. The presence of carbon was revealed by Raman spectroscopy. By using these characterization techniques, it was concluded that the film grown is a composite made of stiochiometric TiOx matrix embedded with crystallites of (reduced) Magneli phases. Chapter 5 deals with the electrical properties of the composite thin films grown in chapter 4. the films behave as percolative capacitor which could be used for application as novel high-k dielectric material for DRAM. The effect of change in flow rates of reactive gas (H2) on the dielectric constant (k) and leakage current of the film were studied. It was found that phase composition of the film plays an important role in tuning the dielectric properties of the film was also studied. The effect of thickness of the film also studied on the dielectric properties of the film. The trend observed was correlated to the morphology of the film as a function of its thickness and the grain growth mechanism as observed from high resolution scanning electron microscopy. Further, the effect of change in substrate temperature, metal precursor pulse length, and of the metal used as top electrode, on C-V and I-V characteristics were studied. It was interesting to see that the presence of the more conductingTi5O9 (than Ti3O5) enhances the dielectric constant, which is a requisite for a high-k material for DRAM application. On the other hand, the presence of Ti5O9 also increased the leakage current in the film, which was not desirable. It therefore suggested itself that an optimum embedment of Ti5O9 in the composite helps in enhancing the dielectric constant, while maintaining a low leakage current. Under optimum conditions, a dielectric constant of 210 at 1MHz was measured with a leakage current of 17 nA. The effect of the presence of carbon in the film was studied using Raman Spectroscopy, and it was found that a high leakage was associated with films having greater carbon content. In this chapter, electrical properties of composite thin films were also compared with those of stoichiometric titanium dioxide (a known dielectric). Further, a multilayer sandwich structure was proposed, such that it had a 53 mm thick stoichiometric TiO2 layer followed by 336nm thick composite film and again a 53nm thick stoichiometric titanium dioxide layer. The dielectric characteristics of this structure were found to be better than those of either of the other two.viz., stoichiometric titanium dioxide film or the composite thin film of titanium oxide.

La découverte du graphène a récemment ouvert de nouvelles opportunités en termes de fonctionnalités et de performances pour les dispositifs de spintronique. Ce travail comporte deux études sur l’utilisation du graphène en spintronique.C’est en premier lieu pour ses propriétés de transport de spin que le graphène a suscité un fort intérêt en spintronique. En effet, de par sa forte mobilité et son faible couplage spin-orbite, il est rapidement apparu comme ayant un fort potentiel pour le transport de l’information de spin avec des longueurs de diffusion de spin attendues de l’ordre de la centaine de microns.Dans une première étude, je m'intéresse au graphène en tant que plateforme pour propager un courant polarisé en spin. Je décris tout d'abord les principales techniques de mesure de vannes de spin latérales, en insistant sur l'importance de la barrière tunnel pour se placer dans les conditions appropriées à la mesure des propriétés intrinsèques au graphène. Je présente ensuite les résultats que j’ai obtenus. Je commence par ceux sur graphène épitaxié sur SiC dans lequel nous avons réussi à injecter, propager et détecter un courant polarisé en spin créé soit grâce à un injecteur ferromagnétique (Co/Al2O3), soit par effet Hall de spin (à partir du platine). Je présente ensuite les résultats obtenus sur un autre type de graphène grande surface, le graphène CVD monocouche, pour lequel j'ai pu expérimenter une nouvelle barrière tunnel: le nitrure de bore hexagonal.Par-delà ses propriétés de transport latéral, le graphène pourrait avoir un autre intérêt pour la spintronique, par exemple dans le cadre de la passivation des couches ferromagnétiques dans les jonctions tunnel magnétiques.Dans une seconde étude, je m'intéresse au graphène comme membrane pour protéger une électrode ferromagnétique de l'oxydation tout en autorisant l’extraction d’un courant polarisé en spin. Aujourd’hui, dû à la propension naturelle des matériaux ferromagnétiques à s’oxyder, les procédés humides/oxydants sont souvent exclus de la fabrication de dispositifs de spintronique. Après avoir introduit les enjeux, je présente mes résultats expérimentaux. Je montre tout d'abord qu’une monocouche de graphène suffit à empêcher l'oxydation d'une électrode de nickel et qu’un filtrage de spin intéressant apparaît à l'interface Ni/Graphène. Je valide ensuite l'ensemble de ce potentiel en montrant qu'on peut utiliser une technique oxydative de dépôt tel que l'Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) sans endommager les propriétés de l'électrode ferromagnétique Ni+Graphène. Le procédé d’ALD, bien qu'utilisé partout en électronique (cette technique sert aujourd’hui à réaliser les grilles des transistors d’Intel), était jusqu’ici proscrit car il met en jeu des molécules telles que l'ozone ou l'eau et est donc par nature oxydant. Enfin, je montre que le filtrage de spin à l’interface Ni/Graphène aboutit alors à une inversion quasi-totale de la polarisation en spin du Ni.Ce travail de thèse montre que le graphène peut être utilisé comme canal de transport d’un courant polarisé en spin, comme membrane protectrice imperméable à l’oxydation ou encore comme filtre à spin. L’ensemble de ces travaux illustre la richesse des applications du graphène pour la spintronique. / Graphene discovery has opened new opportunities in terms of functionality and performance for spintronics devices. This work presents two examples of what graphene can bring to the spintronics field.Graphene first aroused interest amongst the community because of its excellent properties for transporting spin information. Indeed, thanks to its high reported mobilities and its weak spin-orbit coupling, graphene quickly became a high-potential candidate to transport spin information with expected spin diffusion length in the hundreds of microns range.In the first part of this thesis, I study graphene as a platform to propagate a spin polarized current. I first describe the main techniques to measure lateral spin valves, emphasizing the importance of the tunnel barrier being under the right conditions to permit measurement of the intrinsic properties of graphene. I then present my results. I begin with the results obtained on epitaxial graphene on SiC, in which I was able to inject, propagate and detect a spin current created either by a ferromagnetic injector (Co/Al2O3), or through the spin Hall effect (from Pt). Then, I present the results obtained on another large-area graphene, a single layer of graphene grown by CVD on which I tested a new unnel barrier : hexagonal boron-nitrideBeyond its potential as a platform to transport spin information, other opportunities for graphene in spintronics exist, for example its use in the passivation of ferromagnetic layers in magnetic tunnel junctions.In the second part of this thesis, I am interested in graphene’s potential as a membrane that could protect ferromagnets from oxidation while simultaneously allowing the extraction of a spin current. Indeed, because of the natural propensity of the ferromagnetic material to be oxidized, humid and oxidative processes are excluded from the fabrication of spintronic devices. After introducing the background motivation, I present my experimental results. I first show that a single layer of grapheneis enough to prevent the oxidation of a Ni electrode and that an interesting spin filtering effect happens at the interface Ni/Graphene. I then confirm this by showing that it is possible to use an oxidative technique like Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) without damaging the properties of the ferromagnetic electrode Ni+Graphene. ALD is widely used in electronics (Intel uses it to make its transistor gates) but was up to now prohibited in spintronics because it involves oxidative molecules like water or ozone. Finally, I show that the spin-filtering effect at the interface Ni/Graphene leads to a quasi-total reversal of the spin polarisation of the Ni.This thesis shows that graphene can be used as a channel to transport spin information, as a protective membrane to protect against oxidation, or as a spin filter. All this work illustrates the richness of graphene applications for spintronics.

The formation and patterns of a monolayer are determined by the interplay of two fundamental interactions, adsorbate-substrate and intermolecular interactions. The binding strength between adsorbate and substrate affects the mobility of the adsorbate at the surface and the stability of the complex. The intermolecular interaction plays a significant role in the monolayer patterns on the epitaxial layer of the substrate. A monolayer can be formed either by a spontaneous self-assembly, or by fabrication via atomic-layer deposition (ALD). The physical and chemical properties of the resulting monolayer have a broad array of applications in fabricating functional materials for hydrophobic or hydrophilic surfaces, biological sensors, alternating the properties of the substrate, catalysis and forming ordered layered structures. In this dissertation, the investigation focuses primarily on the influence of the surface topology on the binding behaviour of adsorbate-surface complexes. The state of the art DFT-TS method is used to simulate the sulfur-containing amino acids at complex gold surfaces and examine the relationship between the binding strengths and the binding sites with various nearest neighbouring environments. The same method is also used to determine if a chemical reaction will take place for various catalytic silicon precursors at a silicon oxide surface. Simulating surface chemistry using the DFT-TS method requires intensive com- puting resources, including CPU use and computing time. Another focus of this dissertation is to increase the data generating speed by reducing the size of the sim- ulated systems without altering the outcome. A relatively small gold cluster is used to study the binding behaviours of small organic molecules on the cluster. The same strategy is also used to simulate the chemical reactions between various self-catalying silicon precursors and a water molecule. / Graduate / 2021-10-21

Atomlagenabscheidung (ALD, Atomic Layer Deposition) ist als präzise Technik zur Abscheidung dünner Schichten bekannt. Mittels wechselweisen Einleitens von Precursorgasen in einen Reaktor erzeugt der Prozess auch auf strukturierten Substraten gleichmäßige dünne Schichten. Durch die selbstsättigende Natur der zu Grunde liegenden Reaktionen sind sowohl die Wachstumsrate als auch die Zusammensetzung wohldefiniert, weshalb sich Atomlagenabscheidung beispielsweise zur Herstellung nanoskopischer Bauelemente im Bereich der Mikroelektronik eignet. Obwohl Aluminiumoxid vermehrt Aufmerksamkeit für seine hohe Bandlücke (~9 eV) sowie die relativ hohe Dielektrizitätskonstante (k ~ 9) geerntet hat, ist oftmals trotz vielseitiger Untersuchungen der anwendbaren Precursorpaare nur wenig über die strukturellen Eigenschaften sowie die Wachstumskriterien der resultierenden Schichten bekannt. In dieser Arbeit wurde eine kombinierte Simulationsmethode entwickelt, mit der sich Atomlagenabscheidung mittels elementarer Reaktionen auf beliebig strukturierten Substraten simulieren lässt. Molekulardynamische Berechnungen ermöglichen dabei atomare Genauigkeit, wohingegen die Ankunft der individuellen Precursoratome durch Kinetic Monte Carlo-Methoden dargestellt werden. Diese Aufteilung erlaubt die Kopplung der molekulardynamischen Präzision mit den Größenordnungen einer KMC-Simulation, welche prinzipiell die Betrachtung von Milliarden von Atomen zulässt. Durch asynchrone Parallelisierung mit bis zu tausenden Arbeiterprozessen wird zudem die Effizienz gegenüber einer herkömmlichen Molekulardynamiksimulation ausreichend erhöht, um binnen weniger Stunden mehrere Abscheidungszyklen nahezu unabhängig von der Größe des betrachteten Raumes, welche im Bereich von Quadratmikrometern liegen kann, zu simulieren. Zur abschließenden Validierung des Modells und seiner Implementierung werden einerseits Versuche einfacher Schichtwachstumsprozesse unternommen, andererseits wird die Atomlagenabscheidung des wohluntersuchten Precursorpaares Trimethylaluminium (TMA, Al(CH3)3) und Wasser simuliert und die resultierende Schicht auf Übereinstimmung mit bestehenden Daten geprüft.:1 Einführung 1.1 Anwendungen von Atomlagenabscheidung 1.2 Aktueller Stand 1.2.1 Experimentelle Untersuchungen 1.2.2 Kinetic Monte Carlo-Simulationen von Dwivedi 1.2.3 Kinetic Monte Carlo-Simulationen von Mazaleyrat 1.2.4 Molekulardynamik-Simulationen 1.2.5 Dichtefunktionaltheoretische Rechnungen von Musgrave 1.3 Motivation 2 Grundlagen 2.1 Atomlagenabscheidung 2.1.1 Einführung zur Atomlagenabscheidung 2.1.2 ALD von Metalloxiden 2.1.3 ALD von Al2O3 2.2 Kinetic Monte Carlo Methoden 2.2.1 KMC-Formalismus 2.2.2 KMC-Algorithmen 2.3 Molekulardynamik 2.3.1 Grundlagen 2.3.2 Methoden zur Ensembledarstellung 2.3.3 Potentialarten 2.3.4 Numerische Optimierungen 3 Kombiniertes Modell 3.1 Verwendetes Kinetic Monte Carlo-Modell 3.2 Kombiniertes Modell 3.2.1 Abscheidungszyklus 3.2.2 Simulationsraum 3.2.3 Ereignisse 3.2.4 Parallelisierungsmethode 3.2.5 Abhängigkeitsgraph 4 Implementierung 4.1 Existierende Software 4.1.1 LAMMPS 4.1.2 SPPARKS 4.1.3 Sonstige Software 4.2 LibKMC 4.2.1 Modularisierung 4.2.2 Abhängigkeiten 4.3 Implementierung des kombinierten Modells 4.3.1 Vorstellung der Software 4.3.2 Einbindung von LibKMC 4.3.3 Einbindung von LAMMPS 4.3.4 Host-Worker-System 4.3.5 Substratgenerierung 5 Validierung 5.1 Validierung des kombinierten Modelles 5.1.1 Wachstumskriterium 5.1.2 Sättigungskriterium 5.1.3 Parallelisierungseffizienz 5.2 Untersuchungen von Al2O3 5.2.1 Potentialuntersuchungen 5.2.2 Schichtwachstumseigenschaften 5.2.3 Strukturanalyse 6 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Literaturverzeichnis Danksagung

Aim of this student research project was to develop an Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3 ) ALD process from trimethylaluminum (TMA) and Ozone in comparison of two shower head designs. Then studying the detailed characteristics of Al2O3 ALD process using various measurement techniques such as Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM). The real-time ALD growth was studied by in-situ SE. In-situ SE is very promising technique that allows the time-continuous as well as time-discrete measurement of the actual growth over an ALD process time. The following ALD process parameters were varied and their inter-dependencies were studied in detail: exposure times of precursor and co-reactant as well as Argon purge times, the deposition temperature, total process pressure, flow dynamics of two different shower head designs. The effect of varying these ALD process parameters was studied by looking upon ALD cycle attributes. Various ALD cycle attributes are: TMA molecule adsorption (Mads ), Ligand removal (Lrem ), growth kinetics (KO3 ) and growth per cycle (GPC).:List of abbreviations and Symbols ........................XII Lists of Figures and Tables ...................................XVIII 1 Introduction .......................................................1 I Theoretical Part ..................................................3 2 Alumina in electronic industry ............................5 3 Atomic Layer Deposition ....................................7 3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.2 Process definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.3 Benefits and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.4 ALD growth mechanism of Aluminium oxide from TMA/O 3 . . . . . . . . 9 3.5 Growth kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.6 Comparison of TMA/O3 and TMA/H2O – A literature survey . . . . 14 4 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry .....................................................17 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4.2 Measuring Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4.3 Fitting and models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 4.4 Advantages and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy ..............................................25 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5.2 XPS mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5.3 XPS analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5.4 Advantages and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 6 Atomic Force Microscopy .............................................................29 II Experimental Part ......................................................................31 7 Methodologies ............................................................................33 7 .1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 7 .2 ALD process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 7 .3 Experiment design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 7 .4 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 7 .4.1 Tool and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 7 .4.2 Data acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 7 .4.3 Data evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 7 .4.4 Post processing of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 7 .4.5 Sources of errors in SE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 8 Results and discussion ..........................................................47 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 8.2 Kinetic ALD characteristic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 8.2.1 TMA exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 8.2.2 Argon purging after TMA exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 8.2.3 Ozone exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 8.2.4 Argon purging after ozone exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 8.3 Impact of process parameters on characteristic ALD growth attributes and film properties . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 8.3.1 Total process pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 8.3.2 Ozone flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 8.3.3 Deposition temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 8.4 Reproducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 9 Conclusions and outlook .......................................................63 References ...............................................................................68 III Appendix .............................................................................77 A Reference temperatures and ozone flow.............................. 79 B Process parameters ..............................................................81