Magister Artium - MA / The study concludes that the existence of HTAs in the USA is explained by the socially enforced institution of the hijos del pueblo (sons of the town) having a duty to help their hometowns, as well as the private benefits of preserving Garífuna traditions and the possibility of helping repatriate dead immigrants. Fulfilling this duty (and the consequent prestige attained) provides the incentives to send CRs home. In the cases studied, CRs were used to partly finance potable water projects, electricity projects, road paving, a community centre and the construction of a Catholic temple. In most of the cases HTAs worked with a local development organisation, known as Patronato, which formed specific committees for executing projects, for example the water and the electricity committees. For the construction of the temple, a religious organisation known as Pastoral was the local partner. The term Collective Remittances (CRs) refers to the money sent by migrant associations, known as Hometown Associations (HTAs), to Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) in their hometowns for financing public works projects. Few cases of CR are known in Honduras. The only ones reported are among the Garífunaethnic group living on the Caribbean Coast, and with a large migrant community in New York City (NYC). This mini-master’s thesis is the first study written on CRs in Honduras. It studies CR experiences in four Garífuna hometowns and their corresponding HTAs in NYC. It answers three questions: How do CRs work in each case? What are the determinants for HTAs to provide CRs to the hometowns? And what are the determinants for local CBOs in the hometowns to use the CRs effectively to provide public goods in the hometowns? CR is conceptualised as a that chooses which local group and project to finance, and the local CBO, which is the agent

Venture Capitals and early stage companies are of fundamental importance for how the market operates and develops. In the last decade more focus has been put on the ESG strategies and governance of organizations. However, ESG is a relatively new and complex research area in which ignorance and measurement problems have led to inconsistency in applications of ESG concepts and strategies. Based on empirical data consisting of qualitative document analysis and interviews with Swedish Venture Capitals this thesis aims, from theoretical perspectives within decision-making and ESG strategies, to investigate which ESG strategies are used among Swedish Venture Capitals investing in tech, and how these are applied in, are weighted and impact the decision-making process. The result shows that the decision making process can be assumed to be based on bounded rationality tinged by fragmented application of ESG concepts and strategies in which diversity and CO2 impact are prioritized focus areas. The common perception was also that investing in tech created a natural aligning to ESG. Active Ownership, Positive- and Negative screening are the central strategies that were applied with the aim to develop and manage the lack of information and the risks that follows with early stage investing. / Venture Capitals och early stage bolag är av fundamental betydelse för hur marknaden fungerar och utvecklas och under det senaste årtiondet har större fokus riktats mot organisationers ESG strategier och styrning. ESG är dock ett relativt nytt och komplext forskningsområde där okunskap och mätningsproblematik har lett till att begrepp och strategier tillämpas inkonsekvent. Utifrån empiri baserad på kvalitativ dokumentanalys och intervjuer från svenska Venture Capitals avser denna studie, utifrån teoretiska perspektiv inom beslutsfattande och ESG strategi, att undersöka vilka ESG strategier som används bland svenska Venture Capitals och hur de tillämpas, viktas och påverkar beslutsfattandet vid investeringar i tech. Resultatet visade att beslutsprocessen kan antas baseras på begränsad rationalitet präglad av fragmenterad tillämpning av ESG begrepp och strategier där jämställdhet och CO2 påverkan var prioriterade fokusområden. Den gemensamma bilden var även att investering i tech skapade en naturlig förankring till ESG. Active ownership, Positive- och Negative screening var de centrala strategierna som tillämpades i syfte att utveckla och hantera den informationsbrist och de risker som medföljde early stage investering.

Nairobi compte près de 200 bidonvilles où vit 70% de sa population. La plupart des habitants manquent de sécurité foncière et subissent des menaces constantes d'expulsion forcée. Pourtant, nous en savons encore très peu sur la façon dont ces établissements se forment, se développent et se consolident dans des espaces urbains contestés et comment leurs habitants s'adaptent aux conditions d'incertitude. Une partie de la raison réside dans l'écart entre les théories de design et d'adaptation. Alors que la théorie du design se concentre principalement sur les processus cognitifs des professionnels (en négligeant les mécanismes d'adaptation adoptés par les habitants des bidonvilles), les transformations spatiales dans les taudis sont souvent abordées par la théorie de la résilience qui, de son côté, ne tient pas compte des processus de design. Quel est le rôle du design dans les processus d'adaptation liés à des espaces urbains contestés? Je réponds à cette question en explorant les relations entre le design et les capacités d'adaptation dans le Toi Market, le deuxième plus grand marché informel de Nairobi. J'étudie les régimes fonciers du marché et les pratiques de design des commerçants au moyen d’une étude de cas combinant des enquêtes longitudinales et transversales. Le parcours de recherche est abductif. Le cadre conceptuel de la recherche est basé sur une revue de la littérature sur le régime foncier et la théorie du design. Les concepts de rationalité limitée, d'incertitude et de mécanismes adaptatifs constituent la base du cadre théorique utilisé pour analyser les données empiriques. La méthodologie comprend l’observation participante, 59 entrevues avec les commerçants, des rencontres avec les leaders du marché, des techniques de cartographie et l'analyse de plus de 80 documents pertinents sur le marché. Les résultats montrent que le Toi Market a trois types de conditions foncières controversées et que les commerçants mènent des activités de design à trois niveaux: le design de développement, le design évolutif et le design de consolidation. Le design de développement consiste en des initiatives collectives d'adaptation suscitées par des mécanismes de survie. Ce type de design émerge en réaction aux interventions urbaines ordinaires. Il renforce le capital social et vise à améliorer la fonctionnalité du marché. Le design évolutif est mené par des sous-groupes communautaires en réponse aux principaux événements et aux forces externes. Il conduit à des changements sociaux et morphologiques à l’échelle urbaine et dépend des mécanismes de gouvernance et de contrôle. Le design de consolidation fait référence à des initiatives adaptatives dirigées par des individus et des groupes et menées en période de relative stabilité. Il renforce le développement économique et les réseaux, et cherche à atteindre la sécurité foncière. Il émerge principalement dans des niches vacantes, car les habitants des bidonvilles profitent des espaces vides et sous-utilisés. Ces trois niveaux de design génèrent ce que j'appelle ici les établissements multiniveaux. J’oppose ce concept à celui de « quartiers informels », un concept qui ne représente pas la façon dont les bidonvilles et les marchés fonctionnent et évoluent. Je rejette donc la dichotomie formelle/informelle qui persiste dans la littérature. La notion d’habitat multiniveaux reconnaît l'influence d’alliances changeantes et de multiples niveaux de gouvernance comme faisant partie intégrale des processus de design. Dans ces habitats, le design émerge comme un connecteur de capacités adaptatives. Les concepts d’habitats multiniveaux, de niche vacante et de design en tant que connecteur de capacités adaptatives peuvent aider des intervenants à développer des initiatives d’amélioration des bidonvilles qui répondent à l'approche de design adoptée par les habitants de bidonvilles. Ces initiatives peuvent reconnaître la présence d'alliances multiples qui parfois entravent – et d'autres qui favorisent – le changement désiré. Les pratiques de design communautaire peuvent également être adaptées pour équilibrer les objectifs collectifs et individuels. En comprenant ces concepts, les décideurs peuvent à la fois optimiser l'espace disponible en fonction des pratiques locales et prévoir la façon dont les modèles apparaîtront dans les espaces prévus. Enfin, j'encourage les chercheurs à explorer davantage la pensée et la pratique de design des habitants de bidonvilles et de les inclure dans la théorie du design. / Nairobi has nearly 200 slums where 70% of its population live. Most slum dwellers lack tenure security and suffer the constant threat of eviction. Yet, we still know very little about how these slums form, grow, and consolidate in contested urban spaces, and how their residents adapt to uncertainty. Part of the reason lies in the gap between design and adaptation theories. Whereas design theory focuses mainly on professionals’ cognitive processes (largely ignoring adaptation mechanisms adopted by slum dwellers), spatial transformations in slums are often addressed by resilience theory, which usually overlooks design processes. What is the role of design in adaptation processes in contested urban spaces? I answer this question by exploring the relationships between design and adaptive capacities in the Toi Market, the second largest informal market in Nairobi. I study the market’s tenure regimes and traders’ design practices through a case study that combines longitudinal and cross-section investigation. The research reasoning is abductive, made of iterative paths between conceptual frameworks and empirical results. It is largely based on a literature review on land tenure and design theory. The concepts of bounded rationality, uncertainty, and adaptive mechanisms constitute the basis of the theoretical framework used to analyse the empirical data. Methods include participant observation, 59 interviews with traders, meetings with market leaders, mapping techniques and the analysis of over 80 pertinent documents about the market. Results show that the Toi Market has three types of controversial tenure regimes and traders conduct design at three levels: development design, evolutionary design, and consolidation design. Development design consists of collective adaptive initiatives prompted by survival mechanisms. It strengthens social capital, emerges in reaction to ordinary urban interventions, and seeks to improve functionality. Evolutionary design is conducted by community sub-groups in response to major external forces and events. It leads to social and morphological changes at the urban scale and depends on governance and control mechanisms. Consolidation design refers to individual and group-led adaptive initiatives conducted during times of relative stability. It reinforces economic development and networks and seeks to achieve land tenure security. It emerges mainly in vacant niches, as slum-dwellers take advantage of empty, underused spaces. These three levels of design generate what I call here Multi-Level Settlements. I oppose this concept to “informal settlements” that fails to represent how slums and markets work and evolve. I thus reject the formal/informal dichotomy that persists in literature. The Multi-level concept recognises shifting alliances and multiple levels of governance as integral part of design processes. In it, design emerges as a connector of adaptive capacities. The concepts of Multi-Level Settlements, Vacant Niche and Design as a connector of adaptive capacities can help developing slum upgrading initiatives that meet the design approach naturally adopted by slum-dwellers. These initiatives can therefore acknowledge the presence of multiple alliances, which sometimes hinder—and others, foster—desired change. Community design practices can also be tailored to balance collective and individual objectives. By understanding these concepts, decision-makers can both optimize available space according to local practices and forecast how patterns will emerge in planned spaces. Finally, I encourage scholars and practitioners to further explore slum-dwellers’ design-thinking and practices to include them in mainstream design theory.

System dynamics modelling has been used for around 40 years to address complex, systemic, dynamic problems, those often described as wicked. But, system dynamics modelling is not an exact science and arguments about the most suitable techniques to use in which circumstances, continues. The nature of these wicked problems is investigated through a series of case studies where poor situational awareness among stakeholders was identified. This was found to be an underlying cause for management failure, suggesting need for better ways of recognising and managing wicked problem situations. Human cognition is considered both as a limitation and enabler to decision-making in wicked problem environments. Naturalistic and deliberate decision-making are reviewed. The thesis identifies the need for integration of qualitative and quantitative techniques. Case study results and a review of the literature led to identification of a set of principles of method to be applied in an integrated framework, the aim being to develop an improved way of addressing wicked problems. These principles were applied to a series of cases in an action research setting. However, organisational and political barriers were encountered. This limited the exploitation and investigation of cases to varying degrees. In response to a need identified in the literature review and the case studies, a tool is designed to facilitate analysis of multi-factorial, non-linear causality. This unique tool and its use to assist in problem conceptualisation, and as an aid to testing alternate strategies, are demonstrated. Further investigation is needed in relation to the veracity of combining causal influences using this tool and system dynamics, broadly. System dynamics modelling was found to have utility needed to support analysis of wicked problems. However, failure in a particular modelling project occurred when it was found necessary to rely on human judgement in estimating values to be input into the models. This was found to be problematic and unacceptably risky for sponsors of the modelling effort. Finally, this work has also identified that further study is required into: the use of human judgement in decision-making and the validity of system dynamics models that rely on the quantification of human judgement.

System dynamics modelling has been used for around 40 years to address complex, systemic, dynamic problems, those often described as wicked. But, system dynamics modelling is not an exact science and arguments about the most suitable techniques to use in which circumstances, continues. The nature of these wicked problems is investigated through a series of case studies where poor situational awareness among stakeholders was identified. This was found to be an underlying cause for management failure, suggesting need for better ways of recognising and managing wicked problem situations. Human cognition is considered both as a limitation and enabler to decision-making in wicked problem environments. Naturalistic and deliberate decision-making are reviewed. The thesis identifies the need for integration of qualitative and quantitative techniques. Case study results and a review of the literature led to identification of a set of principles of method to be applied in an integrated framework, the aim being to develop an improved way of addressing wicked problems. These principles were applied to a series of cases in an action research setting. However, organisational and political barriers were encountered. This limited the exploitation and investigation of cases to varying degrees. In response to a need identified in the literature review and the case studies, a tool is designed to facilitate analysis of multi-factorial, non-linear causality. This unique tool and its use to assist in problem conceptualisation, and as an aid to testing alternate strategies, are demonstrated. Further investigation is needed in relation to the veracity of combining causal influences using this tool and system dynamics, broadly. System dynamics modelling was found to have utility needed to support analysis of wicked problems. However, failure in a particular modelling project occurred when it was found necessary to rely on human judgement in estimating values to be input into the models. This was found to be problematic and unacceptably risky for sponsors of the modelling effort. Finally, this work has also identified that further study is required into: the use of human judgement in decision-making and the validity of system dynamics models that rely on the quantification of human judgement.