In the second half of the 18th century, the Stockholm retail trades started to organise themselves in legal corporations, called trade societies. In this, they were frequently opposed by the State. Swedish society was still basically a corporatist society, based on privileged bodies, with defined functions and rights. Corporations on a concrete level, claiming legal status as intermediaries between the Individual and the public did, however, not fit into the plans of the State anymore. This dissertation deals with the following problems concerning this late addition to the corporate world of early-modern Sweden: What were the driving forces behind this corporate formation? And what were its consequences, for the relations between corporation and individual on the one hand, and between the corporations and the public on the other? The theoretical framework includes a discussion concerning conflicting conceptions of property. I will argue that the corporate ideals presuppose an 'embedded' notion of property, whereas 'new' ideas of property as a purely material commodity were starting to make their way into 18th century Swedish society. The second theoretical assumption is, that the action of the trade societies may be seen from a petite bourgeoisie perspective, where both the preconditions for their business and social status, as well as their collective action, show great affinity with that of advocates of petty property and small-scale business in the late 19th and early 20th century. I will argue that the combined phenomena of perceived relative deprivation and subsequent real economic hardship proved conducive to the decision of the retail trades to start forming proper corporations, meaning legally recognised (and protected) occupational associations. This process included a shift of strategy, as the trade societies turned inward: A closer adherence to the question of a moral economy, and claims to mutuality and surveillance within the society, were combined with strengthened claims concerning the question of credentials and professional skill. In their relations to individuals, the trade societies were obvious exponents of the patriarchal society. Young men within the retail trades, although closely supervised, faced reasonably fair chances of one day becoming tradesmen, burgesses and members of the corporation. Where conformity was lacking, however, both corporations and individuals were prone to litigation. The strengthened legal position of the trade societies proved to be conducive also to strengthened position vis-à-vis individuals. During the latter part of the century, the municipal courts showed greater adherence to the arguments and statutes of the corporations. The patriarchal system did also contain the relations between men and women. Here is introduced the concept of the corporate gender-order, for describing the trade societies' relations to women within and in the periphery of the corporation. Independent women, working outside any patriarchal control, was seen as a serious threat to the identity of these trades as exclusive, and as 'professions'. As a conclusion the retailers show a certain affinity with the petite bourgeoisie, in their individual as well as their collective behaviour.

Magister Educationis - MEd / There is a continual reaction to educational systems by other social groupings. To a large extend education is determined by persons other than educationalists. The social context has a definite influence on a system of education. In South Africa the different political groupings are reacting to the present educational system. These political groupings each has different political aspirations and expectations. As political aspirations relate closely to educational aspirations, it follows that these political groupings will have different educational aspirations. The political groupings recently exerting the most influence in the educational field in South Africa have been the National Party (NP), the United Democratic Front (UDF) and the Azanian People's Organization (AZAPO). In this research attention is given to the role and influence of these groupings, their educational aspirations, and the degree to which their aspirations are educationally sound. At the outset an attempt is made to determine certain criteria for an educational justifiable educational system. These criteria are used throughout as the standard in terms of which the different aspirations are evaluated. Thereafter each of the groups, the NP, the UDF and AZAPO, is examined individually. To ascertain the educational aspirations of each in the correct perspective, the role each of these groups plays in the educational the political arena is examined. Subsequently aims resulting from the political aims are examined. An extensive literary study was undertaken to inform the research. As education is very topical at present, newspaper reports, magazine and journal articles, as well as relevant research reports and other primary sources have been used in the study. Finally the conclusion is reached that each of the educational aspirations has its strengths and deficiencies and an attempt is made to set a vision for the future.

The 19th century represents the arrival of the Portuguese royal family in Brazil and, with it, significant changes in society and the local population. A formerly reclusive member of society begins to take shape not only in public life but also within the literature: the Brazilian woman. Despite her changing social role, prevailing hygienist and medical theories of the time pointed to the lack of vocation of the nineteenth-century woman for rational matters; which in naturalism implies that these pseudo-scientific theories would be the base to dissect and explain the social pathologies of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and society at large. In my thesis, I propose the analysis of the Naturalist novel Lar (Home), by Pardal Mallet—a lesser-known Brazilian author who was involved with Naturalist, pro-abolitionist, republican, and divorce issues from 1887 to 1894—while contesting its main argument that female characters in the novel sought only one thing: marriage in order to appease their sexual curiosity. Additionally, I will also analyze the representation of middle-class women in Rio and their greater participation in society in the last decades of the 1800s. For my theoretical basis, I use Gayatri Spivak's analysis of women as the Other, the subaltern; and the examination carried out throughout this work will ultimately focus on answering one question: does the carioca woman of the 19th century have a representation consistent with the advances of social insertion that the genre conquered throughout that century, in this novel?

Québec Université Laval, Bibliothèque 2012

Ce mémoire porte sur le personnage du bourgeois dans les fabliaux. L'étude du personnage passe par l'analyse de la représentation littéraire du personnage du bourgeois dans les textes grâce au modèle sémiologique : les différentes caractéristiques tirées du paradigme lexical, les rôles thématiques, étudiés à l'aide des axes sémantiques du récit et les rôles actanciels. L'étude de la réalité socio-historique de la période d'écriture des fabliaux, de la fin du XIIe au début du XIV e siècle, permet de réinsérer les fabliaux dans leur contexte littéraire et social et de comparer le bourgeois historique avec sa représentation littéraire dans les fabliaux. La signification des textes ainsi que la fonction du genre peuvent ainsi être analysés ; entre volonté de divertir et visée satirique existe une contradiction qui suppose un caractère à la fois amoral, présent dans l'action, et moral, dans les différentes valeurs inhérentes aux personnages bourgeois.

La ville de Liège, à la fin du Moyen Âge, fut le théâtre de l’affirmation de ses bourgeois par l’entremise des corporations de métier et des institutions communales. Le XIVe siècle fut en effet marqué par des gains communaux importants au détriment, d’une part, du patriciat urbain, d’autre part, du prince-évêque de Liège. À partir de 1384, le Conseil liégeois, entièrement entre les mains des artisans, possédait des prérogatives étendues dans l’administration et la gestion de la ville. Toutefois, la progression du pouvoir bourgeois se trouva brusquement stoppée, pour une dizaine d’années, lors de la défaite liégeoise d’Othée, en 1408. Ce mémoire porte sur l’évolution du pouvoir communal liégeois dans la première moitié du XVe siècle, moins bien connue des historiens. L’étude de la chronique de Jean de Stavelot permet de mettre en lumière cette période trouble. La défaite d’Othée de même que les réformes imposées par les princes-évêques causèrent notamment de grands bouleversements. Des partis politiques entrèrent aussi en scène et la présence voisine du puissant duc de Bourgogne influença la vie des Liégeois. Ces particularités issues du contexte politique et social sont autant d’éléments qui influèrent sur la volonté d’affirmation des bourgeois et l’exercice du pouvoir communal à Liège. / The city of Liege, in the late Middle Ages, witnessed the assertions of its bourgeois through their guilds and municipal institutions. The fourteenth century was indeed marked by significant gains for the municipal power at the expense of the urban patriciate on one hand and of the prince-bishop of Liege on the other hand. From 1384, the Council of Liege, entirely in the hands of the craftsmen, possessed extensive powers in the administration and management of the city. However, the growth of the power of these bourgeois was suddenly stopped for a decade after their defeat in Othee in 1408. This thesis discusses the evolution of communal power in Liege during the first half of the fifteenth century, less well known by historians. The study of the chronicle of Jean de Stavelot can highlight this troubled period. The defeat of Othee, as well as reforms imposed by prince-bishops, caused notably dramatic changes. Political parties also entered the scene and the neighboring presence of the powerful Duke of Burgundy influenced the lives of the bourgeois of Liege. These features of the political and social context are factors which influenced the willingness of the bourgeois’ assertion and the exercise of communal power in Liege.

Cette recherche, à partir de la pièce de Molière Les Précieuses ridicules, analyse l'opinion de l'auteur à l'égard du phénomène de la préciosité afin de déterminer les raisons de son attaque satirique contre les salonnières. Le mémoire s'ouvre sur une analyse du cadre historique dans laquelle sont établies les limites temporelles du mouvement précieux en France au XVIIe siècle et ses causes. Ces dernières sont à trouver dans les changements politiques et sociaux qui ont suivi la période de la Fronde et l’instauration de la monarchie absolutiste de Louis XIV. La deuxième partie, en passant en revue les satiristes les plus en vogue à l’époque, établit les sources plausibles de la pièce de Molière et détermine la nature politique de la satire. Ensuite, notre analyse met en lumière que les vraies cibles de Molière ne sont pas les précieuses mais les bourgeois qui aspirent à s’élever au niveau de l’aristocratie. La dernière partie est une réflexion sur le modèle de féminisme adopté par l’auteur et ses similarités avec la pensée de Mlle de Scudéry / This research paper, based on Molière's Les Précieuses ridicules, analyses the author's opinion of the phenomenon of “précieusité” in order to determine the reasons for his satirical attack on the “salonnières”. The essay opens with a historical framework in which are established the temporal limits and the causes of the precious movement in France in the seventeenth century. The latter are located in the political and social changes that followed the period of the Fronde and the establishment of the absolutist monarchy of Louis XIV. The second part, by reviewing the most popular satirists of the time, establishes the plausible sources of Molière's play and determines the political nature of satire. Then, our analysis highlights how the true targets of Molière are not the précieuses but the bourgeois who aspire to rise to the level of the aristocracy. The last part is a reflection on the model of feminism adopted by the author and its similarities with Miss de Scudéry.

La ville de Liège, à la fin du Moyen Âge, fut le théâtre de l’affirmation de ses bourgeois par l’entremise des corporations de métier et des institutions communales. Le XIVe siècle fut en effet marqué par des gains communaux importants au détriment, d’une part, du patriciat urbain, d’autre part, du prince-évêque de Liège. À partir de 1384, le Conseil liégeois, entièrement entre les mains des artisans, possédait des prérogatives étendues dans l’administration et la gestion de la ville. Toutefois, la progression du pouvoir bourgeois se trouva brusquement stoppée, pour une dizaine d’années, lors de la défaite liégeoise d’Othée, en 1408. Ce mémoire porte sur l’évolution du pouvoir communal liégeois dans la première moitié du XVe siècle, moins bien connue des historiens. L’étude de la chronique de Jean de Stavelot permet de mettre en lumière cette période trouble. La défaite d’Othée de même que les réformes imposées par les princes-évêques causèrent notamment de grands bouleversements. Des partis politiques entrèrent aussi en scène et la présence voisine du puissant duc de Bourgogne influença la vie des Liégeois. Ces particularités issues du contexte politique et social sont autant d’éléments qui influèrent sur la volonté d’affirmation des bourgeois et l’exercice du pouvoir communal à Liège. / The city of Liege, in the late Middle Ages, witnessed the assertions of its bourgeois through their guilds and municipal institutions. The fourteenth century was indeed marked by significant gains for the municipal power at the expense of the urban patriciate on one hand and of the prince-bishop of Liege on the other hand. From 1384, the Council of Liege, entirely in the hands of the craftsmen, possessed extensive powers in the administration and management of the city. However, the growth of the power of these bourgeois was suddenly stopped for a decade after their defeat in Othee in 1408. This thesis discusses the evolution of communal power in Liege during the first half of the fifteenth century, less well known by historians. The study of the chronicle of Jean de Stavelot can highlight this troubled period. The defeat of Othee, as well as reforms imposed by prince-bishops, caused notably dramatic changes. Political parties also entered the scene and the neighboring presence of the powerful Duke of Burgundy influenced the lives of the bourgeois of Liege. These features of the political and social context are factors which influenced the willingness of the bourgeois’ assertion and the exercise of communal power in Liege.

Ce mémoire vise à mettre en lumière l'expérience historique de la petite bourgeoisie francophone en milieu rural, par l'entremise de l'étude de ses comportements socio-économiques, de ses valeurs, de ses pratiques culturelles et de consommation. Mettant en scène les membres d'une famille de marchands généraux de Rimouski, les St-Laurent, il rend compte de la progression et des transformations qui surviennent au sein d'une famille de la petite bourgeoisie sur trois générations de 1855 à 1945. Cette recherche fait appel à diverses sources et méthodes telles que la base de données pour l'analyse de livres de comptabilité, les enquêtes orales et les photographies. L'étude fait ressortir le rapport complexe qu'entretient ce groupe social avec les questions d'identité de genre, de tradition et de modernité, mais surtout elle permet de situer historiquement la petite bourgeoisie francophone et de nuancer le portrait qu'en a dressé jusqu'à maintenant l'historiographie. / Québec Université Laval, Bibliothèque 2014

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.