This thesis is an attempt to gather and discuss the archaeological and osteological results that has been found in stone ship settings on Gotland. The bone material from five ship settings, one stone setting and a cairn from the bronze age complex at Rannarve in Klinte parish on Gotland has been osteologically analysed during this study to further expand the osteological results that are available from ship settings on Gotland and try to interpret this site. The aim is to try to find what artefacts and bone patterns that can be distinguished from the material found within ship settings. What patterns can be seen in artefacts, age, sex and burial contexts that has been found in ship settings? What are the most common patterns? / Den här uppsatsen är ett försök till att samla och diskutera vilka arkeologiska och osteologiska resultat som påträffats i skeppssättningar på Gotland. Benmaterialet från fem skeppssättningar, en stensättning och ett röse i Rannarve i Klinte socken på Gotland har analyserats osteologiskt för att utöka de osteologiska resultaten som finns tillgängliga för skeppssättningar på Gotland samt för att försöka tolka platsen. Målet är att försöka se vilka föremål och benmönster som går att urskilja från materialet och se vilka mönster som finns mellan fynd, ålder, kön och gravkontext i de olika skeppssättningarna, samt vilka mönster som är de mest vanliga.

Mainly focusing on the big picture regarding the research concerning the religious sphere in Bronze Age Scandinavia, the research field has been missing out on the smaller picture. The results have a tendency to produce a picture where the big landscape monuments, social structures and cosmology appear in the foreground. This essay is a comment to this phenomena and a methodological and terminological discussion regarding the way in which we as archaeologist’s works with questions about religion and rites. The main task though is to make an attempt in trying to identify the ritual performers and to answer the question whether it's possible or not to do that. This kind of work needs empirical studies with a theoretical background. The grave material can be the key to find these individuals since it's a context where the person’s belongings can be connected with the individual. The theoretical stance is that the Bronze Age research has been unable to identify these performers and that this in factcan be done. The etuis of belongings discovered for the first time in 1845 with the archaeological excavation of the Hvidegaard grave outside Copenhagen in Denmark, containing objects referred to as magical objects, can be one way to make these actors of rites come alive.The etuis of belongings and other grave material are presented in this work and a discussion about the graves material is made. The approach to study the bigger picture by studying the small empirical material is also made in this essay where a model of the ritual sphere is presented in the results with an attempt to show a none official cult existing side by side and in interaction with the official one.

This essay is focused on the re-use during the Bronze Age of the Stone Age passage grave RAÄ 85 in Mysinge, Öland. To increase the knowledge of the phenomena of re-use in general and that which occurred in Mysinge passage grave in particular I’ve looked at other forms of re-use on Öland and the re-use of passage graves in Falbygden. The research has been limited to the Bronze Age. My goal has been to see what this might tell us about the relationship people during the Bronze Age had towards the abstract subject of “non-existence”, in other words death. The research clearly shows that Mysinge passage grave is the oldest grave that were in use during the Bronze Age as a grave, of those known to us, with 1/3 of its dated burials dated to the first half of the Bronze Age and the earliest to early Neolithic. This makes the other three megalithic tombs in the area very interesting since none of them has been excavated. The other forms of re-use of graves that were observed in Öland during the Bronze Age were all later covered by a cairn or a stone packing of some sorts. This most often occurred during the late Bronze Age. However, subsequent burials continued after the construction of the cairn/stone packing throughout the Bronze Age and in most cases into the Iron Age. The cairns/stone packings have a lot in common with the entrance cairn at Mysinge passage grave which also seems to have been constructed during the late Bronze Age. However, while cairns/stone packings mark endings of something they at the same time are monuments of today and are continually being used as a grave (but now according to local burial customs). Entrance cairns on the other hand first and foremost mark endings of something, even though these endings are most likely meant to be remembered. None of the passage graves analysed in this essay in Falbygden indicate the same use of the chamber as Mysinge passage grave. With a few exceptions (Rössberga Rör and Norra Lundby 41) the chamber seems to generally stop being used during Late Neolithic and during the Bronze Age and Iron Age secondary burials in the surrounding mound is instead common. However, it mainly seems to occur during the late Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. Not a single grave in the mound indicate a early Bronze Age date. It is clear that the past often had an important role in the relationship to death and burials during the Bronze Age.

Many MBA buildings have been studied from different points of views and approaches / however, their spatial patterns were scarcely investigated. This thesis aims to assess the usefulness of Depth Analysis, a sub-method of Space Syntax, in the understanding of spatial patterns of MBA palaces. The palaces of key MBA sites, Acemh&ouml / y&uuml / k, Tell Mardikh and K&uuml / ltepe, were selected for the analysis. In the conclusion it is suggested that Depth Analysis can be a very useful method in understanding the configuration of spaces when there is sufficient available data. An equally successful application of this method lies in the comparative analysis of different buildings.

On appelle "bronzes oxygénés" des phases non-stoechiométriques caractérisées par l'insertion d'ions Mn+ dans un réseau oxygéné de composition TOy, T étant un élément de transition. Les ions Mn+ peuvent n'occuper que partiellement les sites qui leur sont dévolus dans le réseau oxygéné. La neutralité électrique du réseau implique, au moins formellement, que le métal T se trouve simultanément à deux degrés d'oxydation différents...

There has been an increase in the interest in fluoride materials over the last decade. This interest has focused on multiferroic materials and kagome lattices, to name but a few areas. This thesis focuses on the synthesis and crystallographic characterisation of selected transition metal fluorides and oxyfluorides. Work is presented on the tetragonal tungsten bronze solid solutions of KₓFeF₃, where x = 0.58 and x ≈ 0.5, and the copper analogue, K₃Cu₃Fe₂F₁₅; the kagome structure of Cs₂ZrCu₃F₁₂; and hydrothermal reactions using vanadium, manganese, or molybdenum as the transition metals in the formation of new fluorides and oxyfluorides. The tetragonal tungsten bronze compounds KₓFeF₃ (x = 0.58 and x ≈ 0.5) are both tetragonal at 500 K. In the variant with the lower K-content, there is a clear phase separation into two tetragonal phases even at this temperature. The K₀.₅₈FeF₃ sample separates into two distinct phases below 340 K to possess one tetragonal and one orthorhombic phase. Then at roughly 300 K, both samples undergo a phase transition where the tetragonal phase in the P4/mbm space group in K₀.₅₈FeF₃ changes to an orthorhombic phase with a larger unit cell; and the tetragonal phase in P4₂bc for the K₀.₅FeF₃ sample changes to the same orthorhombic model, whilst the P4/mbm model remains unchanged. The evolution of the lattice parameters and phase fractions is studied in detail using synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction (sPXRD). The kagome structure investigated, Cs₂ZrCu₃F₁₂, possesses the “ideal” kagome lattice at room temperature, but previous work has suggested that there is a phase transition at 225 K. The two structures are determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction at 300 K and 125 K. Variable temperature sPXRD studies are performed between these two temperature ranges to determine the phase evolution as a function of temperature. The structure changes from a rhombohedral to a monoclinic phase at low temperature. This is the result of the buckling of the kagome layers at the phase transition. The Zr⁴⁺ ion changes from 6 to 7 coordinate and this is seen as the main driving force for the distortion of the kagome layer from its “ideal” planar arrangement. ii The phase transition is first-order as seen from the electrical impedance measurements. The hydrothermal reactions presented reveal seven new materials and their crystal structures. Sr₂V₂F₁₀·H₂O is new and found to be isostructural to Sr₂Fe₂F₁₀·H₂O. BaVO₂F₃ is a cubic material that is potentially piezoelectric. Two hybrid organic inorganic manganese compounds are reported. The ladder structure (C₃N₂H₅)[Mn₂F₆(H₂O)₂] crystallises in a polar space group and shows promise as a candidate for multiferroic studies. The second hybrid material, (C₇NH₁₆)₂[MnF₅(H₂O)]·2H₂O, crystallises in a centrosymmetric space group. The Mo hybrid materials are all centrosymmetric and possess isolated molybdenum-centred monomeric or dimeric octahedral units.

In this thesis I focus on mining and smelting in China during the Shang and Western Zhou periods (c. 2200-770 B.C.). The importance of bronze in Shang and Zhou society and the vast quantity of bronze artifacts recovered indicates that the acquisition of metal ore would have been a major occupation of the state. The Shang and Zhou governments controlled their own bronze foundries but did not control the mines. The mines are located in southern China where the Chu state flourished during the Eastern Zhou period, likely due partly to their possession of mineral resources, and in Inner Mongolia where the steppe cultures existed. The Zhou and the Shang were likely obtaining raw materials from southern and northern cultures, either through trade or raid. Provenance studies based on chemical composition of artifact and ore will help resolve the source of Shang and Zhou ore.

This paper deals with the question of when hill forts – or enclosed mountains – were built and to what purpose, by examining two enclosed mountains (RAÄ 78 and 79) in Grödinge parish in the province of Södermanland. A phosphate analysis was conducted to trace anthropogenic activities. The analysis showed only a slight elevation of phosphate content in the soil. A histogram indicated that the elevations were not normally distributed, which could suggest that they were caused by anthropogenic activities. A focus on boundaries is evident in the material, whether it is about erecting physical barriers or the boundary between life and death.

The two archipelagos of Orkney and Shetland, which form the Northern Isles of Britain, are an active focus of archaeological research. The rich Neolithic heritage of Orkney has been acknowledged by the granting of World Heritage status. Although set in both a biogeographically peripheral position and within what may be considered to be marginal landscapes, these North Atlantic islands have a large number of settlement sites with long occupational sequences, often stretching from the Neolithic to the Late Iron Age or into the Norse period. The mixed paleoeconomic strategy presented by three of these settlements¿Tofts Ness, Sanday, Orkney (excavated 1985¿1988); the Iron Age sequences at Old Scatness, Shetland (excavated 1995¿2006); and Late Neolithic and Bronze Age cultivated middens from Jarlshof, Shetland (investigated in 2004)¿provide the core of the evidence discussed within this paper (the radiocarbon chronologies for the key sequences from these three sites are provided as Appendix 1). The role of the prehistoric paleoeconomy is argued to be of central importance in the longevity of these settlements. In particular, barley production is evidenced on all three sites by the plant macrofossils and by the human investment in the creation and management of manured soils, providing an infi eld area around the settlement. This paper focuses on the identifi cation of these anthropogenic soils in the archaeological record. The investment in and management of these arable soils provides clear evidence for resource creation on all three sites. It is argued that these soils were a crucial resource that was necessary to support intensive barley cultivation. The intensive management implied by the presence of these soils is seen as a catalyst for sedentary living and sustainability within a marginal landscape. The evidence also demonstrates the continuity of agricultural practice from the Neolithic to the Iron Age together with the social dynamics that such a practice generates. This paper is in two parts: the fi rst section examines in detail the evidence for the presence of anthropogenic soils and the mixed economic strategies for the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age presented by the evidence from Tofts Ness and Jarlshof. The evidence for the continuity of this intensive strategy of soil management is seen from the later evidence of the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age at Tofts Ness and the Middle Iron Age evidence at Old Scatness. The second part of the paper examines the importance of these soils as an inherited resource within the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age paleoeconomic system. Two models are presented. The fi rst examines the cyclic importance of human creation and maintenance of small arable plots to high barley production yields and therefore to site viability, and the effect this has within a mixed resource system in providing settlement viability through time. The second explores the theoretical land and seascape that would provide this mixed resource base.

Aquest treball intenta definir els patrons d'assentament de les poblacions que van ocupar el curs inferior del riu Ebre entre la fi de l'edat del bronze fins a inicis d'època imperial romana.La documentació prové, en gran part, de les prospeccions i excavacions realitzades per l'autor i per l'equip de recerca del qual forma part, però també dels treballs desenvolupats per altres investigadors o equips, analitzada posteriorment mitjançant l'arqueologia del territori.La primera part de l'obra està dedicada a les característiques orogràfiques de la zona d'estudi, la història de la investigació, els fonaments teòrics i la metodologia de treball. Tot seguit es presenta una anàlisi dels diferents períodes: bronze final, primer ferro, ibèric antic, ibèric ple, ibèric final i inicis de l'alt imperi. Cada un d'aquests moments és interpretat a partir del coneixement arqueològic dels jaciments i dels materials mobles recuperats.Així, entre els segles X i VIII sembla que estem davant de petits grups de població amb una tecnologia poc desenvolupada i una producció limitada al consum propi i a un intercanvi d'abast limitat.La situació canvia entorn del segle VII, moment en què s'identifica un augment demogràfic, la concentració del poblament i un increment de la jerarquització social, paral·lelament a l'arribada d'importacions fenícies. Durant el segle VI s'inicia un període d'inestabilitat i crisi, caracteritzat per la redefinició de l'estatus de les elits i una nova dinàmica comercial.A partir del segle V es documenta una nova estructura de poblament basada en un seguit de petits poblats fortificats, des d'on les elits aristocràtiques exerceixen llur domini. Poc després s'inicia un procés de jerarquització del territori a escala local, definit per l'aparició de grans nuclis de poblament concentrat, probablement la gènesi d'un protoestat.Amb l'arribada dels romans desapareixen aquests grans centres, de manera que l'estructura sociopolítica ibèrica queda decapitada, però es conserven les estructures autòctones de les quals es podia treure profit. Tot i les importants reformes a partir de finals de segle II, no serà fins la segona meitat del segle I aC que el territori s'estructura definitivament seguint els patrons d'explotació agrícoles romans, amb la desaparició definitiva de les formes d'ocupació de l'espai típicament ibèriques. / The aim of this work is to define the settlement patterns of those populations lying on the Lower course of the Ebre River from the end of the Bronze Age to the beginning of the Roman Empire.Documentation is mainly based on field survey and excavations carried out by the author and the research team he belongs to, but also on the studies undertaken by other researches or research teams. The acquired documentation has been analyzed according to current Landscape Archaeology theory. First part of this study is devoted to point out the orographic characteristics of the area, the state-of-the-art of the conducted research and, the theoretical and methodological approach applied in the present work. Furthermore, a deep analysis of the different periods is also taken into account. Thus, Late Bronze, Early Iron, Early Iberian, Middle Iberian, Late Iberian and Beginning of the Roman Empire are examined. For the sake of consistency, every period has been interpreted through the current archaeological knowledge acquired from the site remains and artifacts.As a result, it seems that small groups of population, with a low technological development and a very limited production, focused essentially on self consumption, and a subsequent restricted exchange, were settled down on the Lower course of the Ebre River from the 10th Century BC to the 8th Century BC. This situation would change around the 7th century BC when a demographical risen, along with a gathering of population and an increasing of social hierarchy were identified, in agreement with the arrival of the Phoenician imports. Afterwards, during the 6th century BC, a period of instability and crisis, characterized by the redefinition of the status of the elites and a new dynamic in trade, took place amongst Lower course of Ebre's populations.Since 5th century BC onwards a new structure of population is documented, which is now based on many small fortified settlements where the aristocratic elites exerted their influence. Shortly, an organized hierarchization process of the territory began in a local scale but characterized by large centers of population. Probably, we might be facing the genesis of a proto-state.When Romans arrived, these large centers disappeared and, although the still useful indigenous structures were preserved, the Iberian sociopolitical structure became beheaded. In spite of the great changes that took place from the end of the 2nd Century BC, it was not before the second half of the 1st Century BC when the territory became definitively structured by the Roman agriculture exploitations. Subsequently, the complete disappearance of the Iberian landscape occupation models finally occurred.