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This paper is investigating how metaphors are used in political speeches to achieve persuasion. By analyzing three speeches dealing with the Iraqi war 2003 and delivered by Bush, Blair and Howard, I try to find out the similarities and differences in how metaphors are constructed, how they are used as a persuasive technique, and lastly if the different military contribution of the three countries affected how metaphors are constructed. The main theory used in this study is Critical Metaphor Analysis suggested by Charteris-Black (2011). The analysis suggests that the speeches contain different kinds of metaphors like personification, the POLITICS IS BUSINESS metaphor and JOURNEY metaphors. Metaphors are generally found to be used in a similar way in order to show that the politicians are ‘right’. Still, there are some differences that could be attributed to the different military contribution of the countries and their different role in the war.

This monograph is an empirical study of the competition between the French movement verbs amener/apporter and emmener/emporter, regarded as partial synonyms in the sense that they are interchangeable in certain contexts. The main purpose of this study is to account for these competing verbs from the perspective of actual language use, and to determine to what extent they are synonymous. The study is based on a corpus of French newspaper texts, some literary texts and the answers from a group of informants. It is shown that these lexemes cannot be defined by the principle of shared properties of all the senses represented. They are best analysed as polysemous within the framework of the prototype theory, according to which there is a basic sense from which the other secondary senses are derived through metaphor or metonymy. In the case of these verbs the competition between them arises through the widening of the semantic content of the verbs amener and emmener, extended to the use of inanimate objects uncapable of movement. This case normally calls for the use of the verbs apporter et emporter. In response to the question of the degree of synonymy between these verbs, when adopting a cognitive perspective, it is argued that they are to be considered as lexical variants rather than as perfect synonyms, in the sense that they focus on different aspects of the described movement. In other words, there is an aspectual difference between these closely related lexemes which is determined not only by inherent semantic properties, but to a large extent also by non-linguistic properties, such as the perspective adopted by the speaker in describing the mouvement. Finally, it is pointed out that the prototypical sense of each verb not only explains the different derived senses it gives rise to, but also accounts for the aspectual difference between these competing verbs. / digitalisering@umu

This paper is investigating how metaphors are used in political speeches to achieve persuasion. By analyzing three speeches dealing with the 2003 Iraq war delivered by Bush, Blair and Howard, I try to find out the similarities and differences in how metaphors are constructed; how they are used as a persuasive technique; and lastly if the different military contribution of the three countries affected how metaphors are constructed. The main theory used in this study is Critical Metaphor Analysis suggested by Charteris-Black (2011). The analysis suggests that the speeches contain different kinds of metaphors like THE-STATE-AS-PERSON metaphor, the POLITICS IS BUSINESS metaphor and JOURNEY metaphors. The analysis also suggests that Bush, Blair and Howard make use of THE FAIRY TALE OF THE JUST WAR scenario as well as THE RULER-FOR-STATE metonym. Metaphors are generally found to be used in a similar way in order to show that the politicians are ‘right’. Still, there are some differences that could be attributed to the different military contributions of the countries and their different roles in the war.

Palavras ou expressões produzidas em línguas de sinais são conhecidas como sinais. Línguas de sinais são produzidas especificamente em forma visual e o significado dos sinais pode ser compreendido por meio da relação com recursos visuais, do usuário com o mundo e com o corpo. Este estudo, com base na Linguística Cognitiva, propõe-se a analisar essas relações em sinais da Língua Brasileira de Sinais (Libras), produzidos por dez surdos ao narrarem a história em quadrinhos Não chora que eu dou um jeito da Turma da Mônica. Os processos cognitivos foram analisados à luz da gramática cognitiva (LANGACKER, 2008), da corporificação (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 1980), da metonímia conceptual (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 2003; EVANS; GREEN, 2006; KÖVECSES, 2010), da categorização (CROFT; CRUSE, 2004; Rosch apud FERRARI, 2011), da iconicidade cognitiva (WILCOX, 2000; QUADROS, 2004; WILCOX, 2004) e da mescla em espaço real (FAUCONNIER; TURNER, 1996, 2003; LIDDELL, 2003; SHAFFER, 2012; DUDIS apud SHAFFER, 2012). Constatou-se que alguns sinais produzidos apresentaram conceptualização de base icônica. A partir dessa fundamentação, postulou-se que esses sinais poderiam receber a seguinte categorização: icônicos (BOLA e CAIXA); icônico metonímicos (INES e CASA); icônico metonímico corporificados (MONICA e CHORAR). Por meio dessa classificação, propôs-se também a categorização de nomes e verbos pessoais. Outro processo cognitivo investigado foi a mescla em espaço real, constatada em seis das dez narrativas, como um recurso cognitivo acionado para expor ao interlocutor a troca de turnos dos participantes da narração. Tendo em vista que esses sinais foram encontrados em narrativas, analisam-se etapas da narrativa (LABOV apud FIGUEIREDO, 2009) e a estrutura das histórias em quadrinhos (SILVA, 2001; SOUZA, 2013). Verificou-se que não houve narrativa com todas as etapas de Labov. Assim, por meio de uma investigação inicial, esta pesquisa fornece questionamentos acerca dos processos cognitivos acionados na produção de sinais da Libras nas narrativas pesquisadas / Words or expressions produced in sign languages are known as signs . Sign languages are produced specifically in visual form and signs meaning can be understood through the relationship with visual space, the signers relationship with the world and with the body. This study, based on Cognitive Linguistics, proposes to examine these relationships in signs of Brazilian Sign Language Libras, which were produced by ten deaf when narrating Turma da Mônica comic strip Não chora que eu dou um jeito. Cognitive processes were analyzed according to cognitive grammar (LANGACKER, 2008) , embodiment (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 1980) , conceptual metonymy (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 2003; EVANS; GREEN, 2006; KÖVECSES, 2010), categorization (CROFT; CRUSE, 2004; ROSCH apud FERRARI, 2011) , cognitive iconicity (WILCOX, 2000; QUADROS, 2004; WILCOX, 2004) and real space blend (FAUCONNIER; TURNER, 1996, 2003; LIDDELL, 2003; SHAFFER, 2012; DUDIS apud SHAFFER, 2012). It was found that some signs produced had an iconic relationship. From this reasoning, it was postulated that these signs could receive the following categorization: iconic signs (BOLA and CAIXA); iconic metonymic signs (CASA and INES); iconic metonymic embodied signs (MONICA e CHORAR). Through this classification, it was also proposed the categorization of personal nouns and verbs. Another cognitive process investigated was real space blend, found in six of the ten narratives, as a cognitive resource used to expose the receiver the differences between participants narration. These signs were removed from narratives, therefore stages of the narrative (LABOV apud FIGUEIREDO, 2009) and structure of comics ( SILVA, 2001; SOUZA, 2013 ) were analyzed. It was found that there wasnt a narrative with all Labovs stages, but narrations with some of those stages. Thus, by an initial investigation, this research provides questions about the cognitive processes used to produce signs of Libras in narratives

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:26:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2012-01-05Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T18:55:16Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 camargo_cvr_me_arafcl.pdf: 860163 bytes, checksum: ab883c5a968bd520d11dbfcd64a2ede3 (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Este trabalho de pesquisa foi elaborado em continuação àquele realizado em Iniciação Científica, financiado pela FAPESP, sob a orientação da Profa. Dra. Edvanda Bonavina da Rosa, em que foram analisados exemplos de verbos gregos na voz média, extraídos das narrativas mitológicas da figura heroica de Héracles, presentes na obra Biblioteca, de Apolodoro. Nessa pesquisa, optamos por fazer uma pequena revisão teórica sobre trabalhos que tratassem sobre a medialidade, não somente do grego, mas também em outras línguas, como o português, a fim de traçar análises comparadas entre elas. Coletados os exemplos, a escolha teórica para analisá-los foram as classificações dos verbos gregos na voz média estabelecidas por Allan (2003), a partir de critérios semântico-cognitivos, os quais buscam definir o escopo do emprego da medial nos textos helênicos, definindo as nuances de seu uso, as formas mais e menos recorrentes, levantando as hipóteses que tratassem das dificuldades de delimitar, diante de seu variado leque de emprego, as principais características dessa forma verbal. Neste trabalho de mestrado, sob a orientação da Profa. Dra. Anise Abreu Gonçalves D'Orange Ferreira e financiado pelo CNPQ, aprofundamos no estudo sobre a voz média do grego antigo, elaborando um capítulo teórico dedicado a esse tema, em que buscamos encontrar as intersecções existentes nos diferentes estudos sobre a medial, estabelecendo seus principais traços, sistematizando as variações possíveis de sua ocorrência, além de tentar tornar mais claras as fronteiras que a separam das outras vozes: ativa e passiva. Para tanto, tomamos por base a teoria funcional-cognitivista, afim de expandir as abordagens linguísticas que tangem os estudos clássicos. Ademais, ampliamos nosso corpus de análise, selecionando... / This research was elaborated as a sequence of my undergraduate research, supported by FAPESP, under the orientation of Profa. Dra. Edvanda Bonavina da Rosa, in which we analyzed examples from Greek middle verbs from the mythological narratives of Library, written by Apolodoro. On this former work, we decided to make a small theoretical review about the works on ancient Greek middle voice, as well as on other languages, like Portuguese, in order to establish comparative analysis between them. once collected the examples, we have chosen Allan's (2003) groups of middle verbs to classify the occurrences we found, to define its scope, the most used forms and to formulate hypothesis to make reflections upon the attempt to delimitate Greek's middle voice within its all variable uses. On this master degree's dissertation, under Profa. Dra. Anise Abreu Gonçalves D'Orange Ferreira's orientation, supported by CNPQ, we went deep on our studies about Greek's middle voice, elaborating a theoretical chapter to this subject, trying to find the intersections among middle voice's works, defining its primary aspects, organizing its different uses and furthermore making clearer the boundaries that separate the middle voice from the active and the passive. To do so, we chose cognitive linguistics as our theoretical basis, in order to expand linguistic works on classical studies. Besides, we have amplified our corpus, selecting Books I, II and III from Apolodoro Library, which gathers Greek mythological passages, since the beginning of the universe, until Medea's return to Athens. On this passages, we extracted middle verbs to utilize our selected criteria. About this selection, we make a corpus approach, in other words, we use softwares to improve our research, in both efficiency and speed, as well as to become possible more plausible... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Palavras ou expressões produzidas em línguas de sinais são conhecidas como sinais. Línguas de sinais são produzidas especificamente em forma visual e o significado dos sinais pode ser compreendido por meio da relação com recursos visuais, do usuário com o mundo e com o corpo. Este estudo, com base na Linguística Cognitiva, propõe-se a analisar essas relações em sinais da Língua Brasileira de Sinais (Libras), produzidos por dez surdos ao narrarem a história em quadrinhos Não chora que eu dou um jeito da Turma da Mônica. Os processos cognitivos foram analisados à luz da gramática cognitiva (LANGACKER, 2008), da corporificação (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 1980), da metonímia conceptual (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 2003; EVANS; GREEN, 2006; KÖVECSES, 2010), da categorização (CROFT; CRUSE, 2004; Rosch apud FERRARI, 2011), da iconicidade cognitiva (WILCOX, 2000; QUADROS, 2004; WILCOX, 2004) e da mescla em espaço real (FAUCONNIER; TURNER, 1996, 2003; LIDDELL, 2003; SHAFFER, 2012; DUDIS apud SHAFFER, 2012). Constatou-se que alguns sinais produzidos apresentaram conceptualização de base icônica. A partir dessa fundamentação, postulou-se que esses sinais poderiam receber a seguinte categorização: icônicos (BOLA e CAIXA); icônico metonímicos (INES e CASA); icônico metonímico corporificados (MONICA e CHORAR). Por meio dessa classificação, propôs-se também a categorização de nomes e verbos pessoais. Outro processo cognitivo investigado foi a mescla em espaço real, constatada em seis das dez narrativas, como um recurso cognitivo acionado para expor ao interlocutor a troca de turnos dos participantes da narração. Tendo em vista que esses sinais foram encontrados em narrativas, analisam-se etapas da narrativa (LABOV apud FIGUEIREDO, 2009) e a estrutura das histórias em quadrinhos (SILVA, 2001; SOUZA, 2013). Verificou-se que não houve narrativa com todas as etapas de Labov. Assim, por meio de uma investigação inicial, esta pesquisa fornece questionamentos acerca dos processos cognitivos acionados na produção de sinais da Libras nas narrativas pesquisadas / Words or expressions produced in sign languages are known as signs . Sign languages are produced specifically in visual form and signs meaning can be understood through the relationship with visual space, the signers relationship with the world and with the body. This study, based on Cognitive Linguistics, proposes to examine these relationships in signs of Brazilian Sign Language Libras, which were produced by ten deaf when narrating Turma da Mônica comic strip Não chora que eu dou um jeito. Cognitive processes were analyzed according to cognitive grammar (LANGACKER, 2008) , embodiment (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 1980) , conceptual metonymy (LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 2003; EVANS; GREEN, 2006; KÖVECSES, 2010), categorization (CROFT; CRUSE, 2004; ROSCH apud FERRARI, 2011) , cognitive iconicity (WILCOX, 2000; QUADROS, 2004; WILCOX, 2004) and real space blend (FAUCONNIER; TURNER, 1996, 2003; LIDDELL, 2003; SHAFFER, 2012; DUDIS apud SHAFFER, 2012). It was found that some signs produced had an iconic relationship. From this reasoning, it was postulated that these signs could receive the following categorization: iconic signs (BOLA and CAIXA); iconic metonymic signs (CASA and INES); iconic metonymic embodied signs (MONICA e CHORAR). Through this classification, it was also proposed the categorization of personal nouns and verbs. Another cognitive process investigated was real space blend, found in six of the ten narratives, as a cognitive resource used to expose the receiver the differences between participants narration. These signs were removed from narratives, therefore stages of the narrative (LABOV apud FIGUEIREDO, 2009) and structure of comics ( SILVA, 2001; SOUZA, 2013 ) were analyzed. It was found that there wasnt a narrative with all Labovs stages, but narrations with some of those stages. Thus, by an initial investigation, this research provides questions about the cognitive processes used to produce signs of Libras in narratives

In the past few decades, the investigation of grammatical change using electronic corpora has made headway internationally. Although linguists previously believed that grammatical changes progress too slowly to observe, this method enables linguists to investigate even recent, or ongoing, changes. However, no comprehensive study of recent and ongoing grammatical changes in Afrikaans has appeared yet. Also, when comments about ongoing changes are made, it is usually based on anecdotal evidence, with a focus on English influence. In this study, the method of short-term diachronic comparable corpus linguistics is used to investigate grammatical changes in written Standard Afrikaans from 1911 to 2010. Four corpora were collected to this end, representing language use from 1911-1920, 1941-1950, 1971-1980 and 2001-2010. Additionally, quantitative grammaticography is used to take into account possible effects of prescriptive sources. Two research questions are adressed in this study: the first inquires into the nature and extent of grammatical changes in selected grammatical categories in written Standard Afrikaans from 1911 to 2010; the second wants to clarify the differences and similarities between internal and external language change, and in the light thereof establish to which extent external change, and specifically English influence, is relevant for grammatical changes in Standard Afrikaans during the past century. The theoretical framework within which language use and change is investigated in this study is cognitive linguistics, specifically emergent grammar and the exemplar model. Changes that become apparent from the data are described and explained in terms of processes of change and forces of change, and linked to the principles of cognitive linguistics. Three broad grammatical categories are investigated: temporal reference, pronouns and the genitive. Even though there is an extent of stability in each of the categories, there are also several bigger and smaller changes that give an overview of the nature of grammatical change in written Standard Afrikaans in the past century. These changes can be divided into different categories. The first type of change has to do with formalisation and colloquialisation – in broad strokes, there are signs of formalisation between the first two periods, during which the standard variety was being established, causing some features associated with formality to increase (e.g. passive constructions). However, at the end of the century there are signs of colloquialisation between the last two periods, where some formal features decrease (e.g. the formal second person pronoun u "you"), and some informal features increase (e.g. nou "now" as discourse marker). The second type of change is analogy, causing greater regularity and/or uniformity in a paradigm. For instance, obsolescent preterite forms (had "had", wis "knew") were replaced by regular forms (het/het gehad, het geweet). The last of the Dutch genitive was also replaced by the Afrikaans genitive with se "'s" and van "of". The third type of change is driven by speakers' desire to be expressive. Some of the pronouns specialise increasingly, meaning that they are used less and less for functions other than their main function, and other options are used less and less for that function. Examples of this is the third person pronoun dit "it", the shortened forms jul "you/your" and hul "they/their", and the indefinite pronouns almal "everybody", alles "everything" and elkeen "each one". A next type of change is actually a combination of different processes and forces: grammaticalisation. There are several instances of grammaticalisation: the use of gaan "go" for future reference, the use of dis "it's" rather than dit is "it is", the use of mens "human" rather than 'n mens "a human" as generic pronoun, the use of indefinite pronouns with enig- "any" like enigiets "anything", enigiemand "anybody", enigeen "anyone", and the use of the genitive particle se "'s". The last type of change is externally motivated change. Contrary to the view the Afrikaans literature in general promotes, there is only one instance of confirmed English influence in the data of this study: the increasing use of -self with reflexive pronouns, rather than the bare object form. However, there are instances of extra-linguistic influence, like standardisation that caused large scale variation reduction between the first and the second period, and the influence of feminism that can be seen in decreasing linguistic sexism, particularly with regard to generic pronouns. The conclusion in the end is that the process of internally motivated change and contact-induced change is not different – an innovation can originate from another language (overt transfer), or an internal innovation can be promoted through bi- or multilingualism (covert transfer); however, the same principles, processes and forces of change are at play, irrespective of how many languages are involved.

In the past few decades, the investigation of grammatical change using electronic corpora has made headway internationally. Although linguists previously believed that grammatical changes progress too slowly to observe, this method enables linguists to investigate even recent, or ongoing, changes. However, no comprehensive study of recent and ongoing grammatical changes in Afrikaans has appeared yet. Also, when comments about ongoing changes are made, it is usually based on anecdotal evidence, with a focus on English influence. In this study, the method of short-term diachronic comparable corpus linguistics is used to investigate grammatical changes in written Standard Afrikaans from 1911 to 2010. Four corpora were collected to this end, representing language use from 1911-1920, 1941-1950, 1971-1980 and 2001-2010. Additionally, quantitative grammaticography is used to take into account possible effects of prescriptive sources. Two research questions are adressed in this study: the first inquires into the nature and extent of grammatical changes in selected grammatical categories in written Standard Afrikaans from 1911 to 2010; the second wants to clarify the differences and similarities between internal and external language change, and in the light thereof establish to which extent external change, and specifically English influence, is relevant for grammatical changes in Standard Afrikaans during the past century. The theoretical framework within which language use and change is investigated in this study is cognitive linguistics, specifically emergent grammar and the exemplar model. Changes that become apparent from the data are described and explained in terms of processes of change and forces of change, and linked to the principles of cognitive linguistics. Three broad grammatical categories are investigated: temporal reference, pronouns and the genitive. Even though there is an extent of stability in each of the categories, there are also several bigger and smaller changes that give an overview of the nature of grammatical change in written Standard Afrikaans in the past century. These changes can be divided into different categories. The first type of change has to do with formalisation and colloquialisation – in broad strokes, there are signs of formalisation between the first two periods, during which the standard variety was being established, causing some features associated with formality to increase (e.g. passive constructions). However, at the end of the century there are signs of colloquialisation between the last two periods, where some formal features decrease (e.g. the formal second person pronoun u "you"), and some informal features increase (e.g. nou "now" as discourse marker). The second type of change is analogy, causing greater regularity and/or uniformity in a paradigm. For instance, obsolescent preterite forms (had "had", wis "knew") were replaced by regular forms (het/het gehad, het geweet). The last of the Dutch genitive was also replaced by the Afrikaans genitive with se "'s" and van "of". The third type of change is driven by speakers' desire to be expressive. Some of the pronouns specialise increasingly, meaning that they are used less and less for functions other than their main function, and other options are used less and less for that function. Examples of this is the third person pronoun dit "it", the shortened forms jul "you/your" and hul "they/their", and the indefinite pronouns almal "everybody", alles "everything" and elkeen "each one". A next type of change is actually a combination of different processes and forces: grammaticalisation. There are several instances of grammaticalisation: the use of gaan "go" for future reference, the use of dis "it's" rather than dit is "it is", the use of mens "human" rather than 'n mens "a human" as generic pronoun, the use of indefinite pronouns with enig- "any" like enigiets "anything", enigiemand "anybody", enigeen "anyone", and the use of the genitive particle se "'s". The last type of change is externally motivated change. Contrary to the view the Afrikaans literature in general promotes, there is only one instance of confirmed English influence in the data of this study: the increasing use of -self with reflexive pronouns, rather than the bare object form. However, there are instances of extra-linguistic influence, like standardisation that caused large scale variation reduction between the first and the second period, and the influence of feminism that can be seen in decreasing linguistic sexism, particularly with regard to generic pronouns. The conclusion in the end is that the process of internally motivated change and contact-induced change is not different – an innovation can originate from another language (overt transfer), or an internal innovation can be promoted through bi- or multilingualism (covert transfer); however, the same principles, processes and forces of change are at play, irrespective of how many languages are involved.