I denna studie undersöktes frågan om vad lärare kan göra för att öka elevernas koncentration i matematikundervisningen. För att svara på frågan användes DBR-modellen vid utformningen av studien. I studien observerades två klasser på en högstadieskola, där elevernas koncentration mättes med hjälp av ett observationsprotokoll. De observerade klasserna valdes utifrån den temadefinierade universumsprincipen samt den geografiskt definierade universumsprincipen (Fangen, 2005). I samband med observationerna och en litteraturundersökning togs rekommendationer fram i form av ett textdokument i syfte att tillföra förslag för matematiklärare på vad de kan göra för att främja elevernas koncentration, detta gjordes genom intervjuer samt tematisk analys. Rekommendationerna innefattar uppmaningar såsom exempelvis insamling av mobiltelefoner inför lektioner, lätt tillgång till material för eleverna samt uppmaningar till att använda målfria uppgifter i undervisningen. Rekommendationerna implementerades i de observerade klassrummen och elevernas koncentration mättes på nytt med hjälp av det framtagna observationsprotokollet. Under implementeringen av rekommendationerna skedde flera intervjuer med de deltagande lärarna i syfte att förbättra rekommendationerna och testa dem på nytt genom att ta fram nya versioner av rekommendationerna. Intervjuerna analyserades med hjälp av en tematisk analys. I syfte att undersöka om rekommendationerna hade någon inverkan på elevernas koncentration jämfördes den insamlade data från observationsprotokollet innan implementeringen av rekommendationerna med den insamlade data efter implementeringen av rekommendationerna med hjälp av Mann-Whitney’s U-Test. Analysen av data visade att det skedde en statistiskt signifikant förbättring av elevernas koncentration i en av de observerade klasserna. I den andra klassen skedde en mindre förbättring som inte var statistiskt signifikant. Slutsatsen med studien är därmed att elevernas koncentration i matematikundervisningen kan förbättras genom implementeringen av rekommendationerna. / This study investigates the question of what teachers can do to increase students’ concentration in mathematics teaching. To answer the question, the DBR-model was used in the design of the study. In the study, two classes in a junior high school were observed, where the students’ concentration was measured using an observation protocol. The observed classes were chosen based on the theme-defined universe principle and the geographically defined universe principle. In connection with the observations and a literature survey, recommendations were drawn up in the form of a text document with the aim of adding suggestions for mathematics teachers on what they can do to promote students’ concentration, this was done through interviews and thematic analysis. The recommendations include suggestions such as collection of mobile phones before lessons, easy access to material for students and suggestions to use goal-free tasks in teaching. The recommendations were implemented in the observed classrooms and the students’ concentration was re-measured using the developed observation protocol. During the implementation of there commendations, several interviews took place with the participating teachers in order to improve the recommendations and test them anew by producing new versions of the recommendations. The interviews were analyzed using a thematic analysis. In order to investigate whether the recommendations had any impact on the students’ concentration, the collected data from the observation protocols before the implementation of the recommendations were compared with the collected data after the implementation of the recommendations using the Mann-Whitney’s U-Test. The analysis of the data showed that there was a statistically significant improvement in the students’ concentration in one of the observed classes. In the second class, there was a smaller improvement that was not statistically significant. The conclusion of the study is thus that students’ concentration in mathematics teaching can be improved through the implementation of the recommendations.

Acute mental fatigue can negatively affect cognitive performance This study investigates how different auditory interventions can influence the degree of mental fatigue during a cognitively demanding task, in this case, a 16-minute T-LoadDback test designed to induce mental fatigue. 27 healthy individuals were recruited and randomly assigned to one of three groups. One group listened to self-selected music, as it is well documented that listening to preferred music can increase dopamine levels, potentially mitigating mental fatigue. Another group listened to a 40 Hz binaural beat, known to improve concentration and increase energy. The third group served as a control group and conducted the task in silence. Subjective measurements of mental fatigue were obtained before and after the T-LoadDback test using a Visual Analog Scale for Fatigue(VAS-F), while objective data on mental fatigue were collected through the results of a 5-minute Corsi Block-tapping test and heart rate variability(HRV), both measured before and after the main task. The results indicated no significant pre-post differences for the VAS-F scores, Corsi test performance, or HRV, suggesting that mental fatigue was not successfully induced in the current experiment.The VAS-F scores showed no significant main effects or group differences, despite notable individual variations. Although both the music and 40 Hz groups outperformed the control group in the Corsi test, no differences were observed between the intervention groups themselves.  Similarly, HRV data showed no significant changes, indicating minimal effects on autonomic nervous system activity. These results suggest that while individual preferences in auditory stimuli, such as ambient music, might influence fatigue levels, the overall effectiveness of such interventions remains inconclusive.

Making video recordings of large classroom lectures and putting them online is increasingly common in distance and blended learning courses. However, the best way to use lecture video is not well understood. Using long streams of one-way communication is not consistent with best practices in online learning. During lectures, students assume a largely passive role. They think faster than instructors speak, so boredom and daydreaming are common. Yet, when complex or novel ideas are presented, students may have inadequate time to encode, organize, and integrate the input with prior experience. Especially for students with low prior knowledge of the subject being discussed, the lecture is a cognitive and affective roller coaster ride that works at cross purposes with learning. Viewing a lecture that was recorded at an earlier time adds the element of temporal distance from the learning event, and changes the student’s role from participant to spectator. The present study investigated whether learning could be increased and perceptions of difficulty reduced when a captured lecture received a “makeover” before being put online. The makeover consisted of 1) editing the lecture video in accordance with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning; 2) processing the video using best practices for audio/video production; and 3) increasing the video playback speed. The research design for the study was quasiexperimental. The independent variable was captured lecture form (edited or unedited). The dependent variables were learning results for recognition and recall, and perceptions of difficulty. Data analysis employed independent-samples t-tests, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and repeated-measures MANOVA. Conclusions were that the editing protocol made no significant difference in learning gains for recognition or recall, and did not significantly affect perceptions of difficulty. However, editing did result in a 39% reduction in the length of the lecture, raising the possibility that such a makeover might allow for faster learning when lecture video is used.

The proliferation of information systems (IS) over the past decades has increased the demand for system authentication. While the majority of system authentications are password-based, it is well documented that passwords have significant limitations. To address this issue, companies have been placing increased requirements on the user to ensure their passwords are more complex and consequently stronger. In addition to meeting a certain complexity threshold, the password must also be changed on a regular basis. As the cognitive load increases on the employees using complex passwords and changing them often, they may have difficulty recalling their passwords. As such, the focus of this experimental study was to determine the effects of raising the cognitive load of the authentication strength for users upon accessing a system via increased strength for passwords requirements. This experimental research uncovered the point at which raising the authentication strength for passwords becomes counterproductive by its impact on end-user performances. To investigate the effects of changing the cognitive load (via different password strength) over time, a quasi-experiment was proposed. Data was collected in an effort to analyze the number of failed operating system (OS) logon attempts, users’ average logon times, average task completion times, and number of requests for assistance (unlock & reset account). Data was also collected for the above relationships when controlled for computer experience, age, and gender. This quasi-experiment included two experimental groups (Group A & B), and a control group (Group C). There was a total of 72 participants from the three groups. Additionally, a pretest-posttest experiment survey was administered before and after the quasi-experiment. Such assessment was done in an effort to see if user’s perceptions of password use would be changed by participating in this experimental study. The results indicated a significant difference between the user’s perceptions about passwords before and after the quasi-experiment. The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and Multivariate Analysis of Covariate (MANCOVA) tests were conducted. The results revealed a significance difference on the number of failed logon attempts, average logon times, average task completion, and amount of request for assistance between the three groups (two treatment groups & the control group). However, no significant differences were observed when controlling for computer experience, age, and gender. This research study contributed to the body of knowledge and has implications for industry as well as for further study in the information systems domain. It contributed by giving insight into the point at which an increase of the cognitive load (via different password strengths) become counterproductive to the organization by causing an increase in number of failed OS logon attempts, users' average logon times, average task completion times, and number of requests for assistance (unlock and reset account). Future studies may be conducted in the industry as results by differ from college students.

There is a significant gap in the body of knowledge concerning time-compressed multimedia instruction. Although research indicates that there is no loss in learning through well-designed multimedia instruction compressed at 25%, research is lacking that analyzes the effects of time-compression with learner-control included in the multimedia instruction. The aim of the study was to address this gap in the research by integrating learner-control into the interface of a time-compressed multimedia instructional lesson using similar methodologies from previous research. Effects were analyzed of time-compressed learner-controlled multimedia instruction on learning and perceived cognitive load. Additionally, the researcher employed a participant population from a corporate environment to increase the generalizability of the results. The researcher investigated two hypotheses concerning the differences in effects between a treatment group that used multimedia instruction featuring learner-control over two pre-determined compression speeds (0% and 25%) and a control group with no time-compression. The primary results of the study were that there was no significant difference in either learning or perceived cognitive load between the treatment and control group. Also, another noteworthy result was that only one-fifth of the participants in the treatment group (n=7) altered the compression speed during the presentation. One implication of these results is that learners might want more compression speed options during a presentation. Another implication is that learners might choose to use time-compression during a multimedia presentation if there was more information provided to the learner concerning what time-compression is and how it affects learning. Recommendations for future research include investigating the implications of this study and expanding the types of populations that are sampled for time-compressed multimedia research. Overall, both industry and academia must commit to aiding in the research of time-compression technology if its benefits and hindrances are ever to be fully explored.

Understanding speech in the presence of noise can be difficult, especially when suffering from a hearing loss. This thesis examined behavioural and electrophysiological measures of speech processing with the aim of establishing how they were influenced by hearing loss (internal degradation) and listening condition (external degradation). The hypothesis that more internal and external degradation of a speech signal would result in higher working memory (WM) involvement was investigated in four studies. The behavioural measure of speech recognition consistently decreased with worse hearing, whereas lower WM capacity only resulted in poorer speech recognition when sound were spatially co-located. Electrophysiological data (EEG) recorded during speech processing, revealed that worse hearing was associated with an increase in inhibitory alpha activity (~10 Hz). This indicates that listeners with worse hearing experienced a higher degree of WM involvement during the listening task. When increasing the level of background noise, listeners with poorer hearing exhibited a breakdown in alpha activity, suggesting that these listeners reached a ceiling at which no more WM resources could be released through neural inhibition. Worse hearing was also associated with a reduced ability to selectively attend to one of two simultaneous talkers, brought on by a reduced neural inhibition of the to-be-ignored speech. Increasing the level of background noise reduced the ability to neurally track the to-be-attended speech. That internal and external degradation affected the tracking of ignored and attended speech, respectively, indicates that the two speech streams were neurally processed as independent objects. This thesis demonstrates for the first time that hearing loss causes changes in the induced neural activity during speech processing. In the last paper of the thesis, it is tentatively suggested that neural activity can be utilized from electrodes positioned in the ear canal (EarEEG) for adapting hearing-aid processing to suite the individual listeners and situation. / Att förstå tal i brus kan vara svårt, speciellt när man lider av en hörselnedsättning. Denna avhandling undersöker beteende- och elektrofysiologiska data med föremålet att bestämma hur de påverkas av hörselskada (intern försämring) och lyssningssituation (extern försämring). Hypotesen att båda intern och extern försämring av talsignalen resulterar i mer aktivering av arbetsminnet under bearbetning av talsignaler har undersökts i fyra studier. Beteendedata visade att talförståelse försämrades med större hörselnedsättning, medan lägre arbetsminneskapacitet endast resulterade i sämre talförståelse när ljudkällorna inte var rumsligt sammanfallande. Elektrofysiologiska mätningar (EEG) gjorda under bearbetning av tal, visade at sämre hörsel associerades med högre inhibitorisk alfa-aktivitet (~10 Hz). Detta indikerar att personer med sämre hörsel upplevde en högre involvering av arbetsminnet under lyssningsuppgiften. Då nivån av bakgrundsljud höjdes, visade personer med sämre hörsel ett sammanbrott av alfaaktiviteten, vilket tyder på att de nådde ett tak där ytterligare arbetsminnes-resurser inte kunde frigöras genom neural inhibition. Sämre hörsel var också förknippat med en reducerad förmåga till at fokusera uppmärksamheten på en av två samtidiga talare, förorsakat av en reducerad förmåga till neuralt att undertrycka den störande talsignalen. En ökning av nivån av bakgrundsljud minskade förmågan att inkoda den relevante talsignalen. Att intern och extern försämring påverkade respektive inkodning av störande och relevant tal, indikerar att de två tal-strömma är neuralt behandlas som oavhängiga objekt. Denna avhandling demonstrerar för första gången att hörselskada förorsakar ändringar i den inducerade neurale aktiviteten under bearbetningen av talsignaler. I avhandlingens sista artikel förslås det preliminärt att neural aktivitet kan upptas från elektroder placerade i hörselgången som kan användas till att kontrollera hörapparat signalbehandling. / <p>Funded by the Oticon Foundation. Project number: 11-2757.</p>

Os mapas conceituais são ferramentas gráficas que possibilitam a representação dos modelos mentais do aluno. Devido a essa capacidade, o mapa conceitual pode ser utilizado como ferramenta avaliativa de conhecimento. O uso dessa ferramenta em sala de aula gera cargas na memória de trabalho que podem ser referentes ao conteúdo (carga intrínseca) ou à forma como esse recurso está sendo trabalhado na sala de aula (carga extrínseca). Este trabalho tem por objetivo investigar como os mapas conceituais auxiliam na avaliação da aprendizagem da disciplina Ciências da Natureza: Ciência, Cultura e Sociedade ofertada na Universidade de São Paulo para alunos ingressantes de diversos cursos de graduação (n = 64) durante o período de 2013.1 sobre o conteúdo de Mudanças Climáticas. Nas turmas avaliadas o mapa conceitual poderia ser utilizado como ferramenta de preparação para prova (MCPREP) como também era utilizado como parte da avaliação formal da disciplina (MC-AVAL). Essa pesquisa se constitui de três Estudos que investigam: 1. As diferenças de perfis de mapas conceituais obtidos na condição de MC-PREP x MCAVAL; 2. Se o grupo de alunos que fizeram MC-PREP tiveram MC-AVAL com perfil diferente daqueles que não fizeram; 3. A existência de uma correlação entre as características do MC-AVAL com o conhecimento declarativo dos estudantes. Os mapas conceituais foram avaliados considerando aspectos estruturais e semânticos. As metodologias das análises realizadas foram retiradas de trabalhos presente na literatura. Entre os aspectos semânticos estavam o uso de materiais instrucionais, a natureza das proposições, a presença de erros e a aderência a pergunta focal. Além dessas análises, foi verificada a presença de agrupamentos naturais que pudessem ser explicados com uso das categorias teóricas. A análise dos resultados indica que os mapas conceituais das condições MC-PREP e MC-AVAL são bastante distintas entre si, pois atendiam a objetivos educacionais diferentes. No Estudo 2 verificou-se que o MC-PREP não influenciou fortemente a elaboração do MC-AVAL, pois a diminuição da carga extrínseca provocada pela elaboração de MC-PREP não foi suficiente para mostrar diferenças entre os grupos, já que ambos estavam altamente treinados na técnica de mapeamento conceitual. Por fim, no Estudo 3, o principal fator correlacionando o conhecimento declarativo com a complexidade dos mapas conceituais foi o percentual de proposições apropriadas. As conclusões do trabalho são que a demanda de elaboração do mapa conceitual é realmente orientadora de produto, a elaboração de um mapa conceitual a mais em um grupo bem treinado na técnica não altera seu desempenho e o principal meio de avaliar os mapas conceituais deve ser a leitura de suas proposições constituintes. / Concept maps are graphical tools that allows the representation of the student\'s mental models. Due to this capacity, the concept map can be used as an assessement tool of knowledge. The use of this tool in the classroom generates loads in working memory which can be related to the content (intrinsic load) or how this feature is being used in the classroom (extrinsic load). This study aims to investigate how the concept maps help to assess learning in the Natural Science: Science, Culture and Society course offered at the University of São Paulo for students of various undergraduate courses (n = 64) during the 2013.1 on the content of climate change. In the course, conceptual map could be used as a preparation tool for test (CM-PREP) and was also used as part of the formal evaluation of the course (CM-EVAL). This research is composed of three studies that investigate: 1. Differences in conceptual maps profiles obtained on condition of CM-PREP x CMEVAL; 2. If the group of students who took CM-PREP had a different profile in CMAVAL of those who did not; 3. The existence of a correlation between CM-EVAL features with the declarative knowledge of students. Concept maps were evaluated considering structural and semantic aspects. The methodologies of analyzes are taken from other papers. Among the semantic aspects were the use of instructional materials, the nature of the propositions, the presence of errors and adhesion to focus question. In addition to these analyzes, it was verified the presence of natural groups that could be explained with the use of theoretical categories. Analysis of the results indicates that the conceptual maps of the CM-PREP and CM-EVAL conditions are quite distinct from each other as it catered to different educational goals. At the Study 2, it was found that the CM-PREP not strongly influenced the development of CM-EVAL, as the reduction of extrinsic charge caused by CM-PREP elaboration was not enough to show differences between the groups, since both were highly trained in conceptual mapping technique. Finally, in Study 3, the main factor correlating the declarative knowledge to the complexity of the conceptual maps was the percentage of appropriate propositions. We concluded that the demand of elaboration of the conceptual map is actually the guide to the type of conceptual map obtained, the elaboration of CM-PREP does not change in a well-trained group in the technique and the main method of assessing concept maps should be reading its propositions.

As technology and capital markets complexity increases, so does the amount of accounting information disclosed by companies in their financial reports. Nowadays, we reached an impasse, where it is questionable if more information will in fact reduce information asymmetry. Previous authors strongly criticize the length of financial statements and annual reports, arguing that they should communicate more rather than just be voluminous as the current volume of information can be counterproductive to the average individual to acquire, retain and process all available information. Based on evidence of previous accounting literature on presentation format and the psychology theories of attribution theory and cognitive load theory, we hypothesize that, by manipulating accounting information using a more general accessible format such as the narrative one, individual investors are able to better understand accounting information and, thereafter, make a more effective use of it versus the concurrent non-fundamental information available in a standard investment decision making setting. To achieve our research goal, we use a mixed method research strategy with an Exploratory Sequential Design: the qualitative method act as a preparation for the quantitative one. Concerning the qualitative method, we interview- using the Q methodology approach - 31 subjects, being 13 analysts/professional investors and 18 individual investors. Our objective in this phase is to identify patterns in the usage of accounting/non-accounting information by analysts/professional investors, in contrast to individual investors\' information choices. By doing so, we can use the obtained results to base our experimental information choices regarding (a) which accounting information pieces were most preferable to professional investors and (b) the information presentation sequence to be followed in the experimental setting. Next, we develop a 2 X 2 between-subjects experimental design in which we manipulate the presentation format of a hypothetical company between the traditional \'tabular and footnotes\' design versus the narrative content-only design. We also vary the financial performance between \'good\' and \'bad\' to check if the variables of interest would impact (a) investment propensity on the company\'s shares and (b) the amount of information retrieved from memory. As our main results, we find that the narrative format per se does not impact investment propensity and that the alternative presentation format is beneficial for participants with less than 5 years of investment experience in capital markets in the poor financial performance condition, adjusting their investment propensity to the same investment propensity level of more experienced investors. / A medida que a complexidade da tecnologia e dos mercados de capitais aumentou, o montante da informação contábil divulgada pelas empresas em seus relatórios financeiros também aumentou. Atualmente, chegamos a um impasse, onde é questionável se mais informações reduzem a assimetria de informações. Autores anteriores criticam fortemente o tamanho das demonstrações financeiras e relatórios anuais, argumentando que eles devem comunicar mais ao invés de apenas serem volumosos, já que o atual volume de informações pode ser contraproducente para o indivíduo médio adquirir, reter e processar todas as informações disponíveis. Com base na evidência de literatura contábil anterior sobre o formato de apresentação e as teorias de psicologia, teoria da atribuição e teoria da carga cognitiva, temos a hipótese de que, ao manipular informações contábeis através de um formato amplamente mais acessível, como a narrativa, os investidores individuais serão capazes de compreender melhor as informações contábeis e, posteriormente, ter um uso mais proeminente delas em relação às atuais informações não fundamentais disponíveis para uma avaliação de decisão de investimento. Para alcançar nosso objetivo de pesquisa, utiliza-se uma estratégia de pesquisa de método misto com um Desenho Sequencial Exploratório, o método qualitativo atua como uma preparação para o quantitativo. Como método qualitativo, entrevistou-se - usando a abordagem da Metodologia Q - 31 sujeitos, sendo 13 analistas/investidores profissionais e 18 investidores individuais. O objetivo nesta fase foi entender o padrão de comportamento de uso de informações contábeis/não-contábeis por analistas/investidores profissionais, em comparação com as escolhas de informações de investidores individuais. Ao fazê-lo, puderam-se usar os resultados obtidos das entrevistas para basear as escolhas de informações experimentais em relação a (a) quais peças de informação contábil eram mais preferíveis aos investidores profissionais e (b) a sequência de apresentação de informações a seguir na configuração experimental. Em seguida, desenvolve-se um design experimental 2 x 2 entre os sujeitos em que manipulamos o formato de apresentação de uma empresa hipotética entre o design tradicional \'tabular e notas explicativas\' versus o design narrativo apenas de conteúdo. Foi alterado também o desempenho financeiro entre \'bom\' e \'ruim\' para verificar se as variáveis de interesse impactam (a) propensão de investimento nas ações da empresa e (b) a quantidade de informações recuperadas da memória. Como nossos principais resultados, identificamos que o formato narrativo individualmente não afeta a propensão de investimento e que o formato de apresentação alternativa beneficiou os participantes com menos de 5 anos de experiência de investimento nos mercados de capitais na condição de má performance financeira, ajustando sua propensão ao mesmo nível de investimento de investidores mais experientes.

Os mapas conceituais (MCs) são organizadores gráficos com grande potencial para estimular a aprendizagem significativa. Porém, poucos trabalhos exploram o uso dos MCs elaborados pelo professor como material instrucional de Química. Nesta tese, a explicação química para dois fenômenos macroscópicos (cor nos fogos de artifício e a condução elétrica em diferentes materiais) foram escolhidos para serem representados e ensinados por meio dos MCs. A possibilidade de ler o MC de várias formas, a necessidade em estabelecer uma sequência de leitura e, a dificuldade do conteúdo representado podem gerar, no aluno que interage com o material, uma sensação de desorientação. A desorientação compromete os recursos cognitivos destinados à aprendizagem (processamento generativo) devido a uma alta complexidade do conteúdo (i.e., carga cognitiva intrínseca) ou a um formato de instrução inadequado (i.e., carga cognitiva extrínseca). Considerando os pressupostos da Teoria da Carga Cognitiva e da Teoria da Aprendizagem Multimídia, esses materiais devem ser elaborados de modo que as demandas cognitivas impostas ao aluno não excedam a limitada capacidade da MT, caso contrário, não sobrará recursos cognitivos suficientes para processar e adquirir novas informações, isto é, aprender. Sendo assim, o objetivo dessa tese foi avaliar o impacto de algumas estratégias para minimizar a desorientação provocada por MCs que organizam conteúdos de Química e, consequentemente, potencializar a aprendizagem de conceitos científicos. Três estudos foram conduzidos para avaliar o impacto do uso de dicas gráficas de navegação (Estudo I), do tipo de organização conceitual (Estudo II), do uso de recursos digitais associados ao MC (i.e., um hipertexto) e do nível de conhecimento prévio dos alunos (Estudo III) no ganho de conhecimento factual e conceitual e na carga cognitiva (e.g., esforço mental) declarada para compreender o conteúdo químico. Ao total, 253 alunos ingressantes à Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo participaram desta pesquisa entre os anos de 2014 e 2017. A metodologia quantitativa (em um planejamento quase-experimental) foi adotada para comparar estatisticamente as médias de desempenho e esforço mental dos alunos alocados em diferentes condições experimentais. Com base nos resultados, foi possível concluir que (1) independentemente do tipo de MC utilizado como material instrucional, todos os alunos foram capazes de aumentar o seu nível de conhecimento factual sobre o conteúdo químico e, (2) o uso da cor e da hierarquia conceitual como dicas gráficas de navegação foram capazes de minimizar a desorientação provocada pelos MCs via gestão de carga intrínseca e redução da carga extrínseca, respectivamente. O processamento generativo pôde ser potencializado pelo uso de recursos digitais associados ao MC, tornando-o um hipertexto com certo grau de orientação de navegação. Algumas implicações educacionais, limitações da pesquisa e possibilidade de estudos futuros também são apresentadas. / Concept maps (Cmaps) are graphical organisers with great potential to foster meaningful learning. However, just a few studies explore the use of teacher-prepared Cmaps as chemistry instructional material. In this thesis, chemical explanations for two macroscopic phenomena (the colour in fireworks and electric conductivity) are chosen to be represented and taught through Cmaps. The possibility of reading the Cmap in different ways, the need for establishing a reading sequence and the content difficulty can lead, for the learner who is interacting with the material, a sense of disorientation. Disorientation impairs the cognitive resources that should be used for learning (generative processes) due to either a high content complexity (i.e., intrinsic load) or an unsuited format of instruction (i.e., extraneous load). Based on the assumptions of Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning Theory, these materials should be elaborated in a way that the cognitive load imposed to the learners does not exceed the limited working memory capacity, otherwise, there are no left cognitive resources to process and acquire new knowledge (i.e., learn). The thesis\' goal was to evaluate the impact of some strategies in minimizing the disorientation of Cmap that organizes chemistry contents and, consequently, to foster scientific conceptual learning. Three studies were conducted to evaluate the impact of: using navigational graphical cues (Study I), different types of conceptual organisation (Study II), using digital resources linked to the Cmap (i.e., hypertext) and the level of learners\' prior knowledge (Study III) on the gain of factual and conceptual knowledge and the cognitive load (e.g., mental effort) related to understanding the chemical content. In total, 253 freshman university students to the School of Arts, Science and Humanities of the University of São Paulo participated in this research between 2014 and 2017. A quantitative methodology (by a pre-test-to-post-test quasi-experimental design) were adopted for statistically comparing the mean of performance and mental effort from students in different experimental conditions. Considering the results, it was concluded that: (1) regardless the type of Cmap used as instructional material, all students were capable to improve their level of factual knowledge about chemical concepts and (2) the use of colour and conceptual hierarchy as navigational graphical cues decreased Cmap disorientation by managing intrinsic load and reducing extraneous load, respectively. Generative processing was fostered using digital resources linked to the Cmap by offering a scaffold for hypertext navigation. Some educational implications, research limitations and future studies are also presented.

As technology and capital markets complexity increases, so does the amount of accounting information disclosed by companies in their financial reports. Nowadays, we reached an impasse, where it is questionable if more information will in fact reduce information asymmetry. Previous authors strongly criticize the length of financial statements and annual reports, arguing that they should communicate more rather than just be voluminous as the current volume of information can be counterproductive to the average individual to acquire, retain and process all available information. Based on evidence of previous accounting literature on presentation format and the psychology theories of attribution theory and cognitive load theory, we hypothesize that, by manipulating accounting information using a more general accessible format such as the narrative one, individual investors are able to better understand accounting information and, thereafter, make a more effective use of it versus the concurrent non-fundamental information available in a standard investment decision making setting. To achieve our research goal, we use a mixed method research strategy with an Exploratory Sequential Design: the qualitative method act as a preparation for the quantitative one. Concerning the qualitative method, we interview- using the Q methodology approach - 31 subjects, being 13 analysts/professional investors and 18 individual investors. Our objective in this phase is to identify patterns in the usage of accounting/non-accounting information by analysts/professional investors, in contrast to individual investors\' information choices. By doing so, we can use the obtained results to base our experimental information choices regarding (a) which accounting information pieces were most preferable to professional investors and (b) the information presentation sequence to be followed in the experimental setting. Next, we develop a 2 X 2 between-subjects experimental design in which we manipulate the presentation format of a hypothetical company between the traditional \'tabular and footnotes\' design versus the narrative content-only design. We also vary the financial performance between \'good\' and \'bad\' to check if the variables of interest would impact (a) investment propensity on the company\'s shares and (b) the amount of information retrieved from memory. As our main results, we find that the narrative format per se does not impact investment propensity and that the alternative presentation format is beneficial for participants with less than 5 years of investment experience in capital markets in the poor financial performance condition, adjusting their investment propensity to the same investment propensity level of more experienced investors. / A medida que a complexidade da tecnologia e dos mercados de capitais aumentou, o montante da informação contábil divulgada pelas empresas em seus relatórios financeiros também aumentou. Atualmente, chegamos a um impasse, onde é questionável se mais informações reduzem a assimetria de informações. Autores anteriores criticam fortemente o tamanho das demonstrações financeiras e relatórios anuais, argumentando que eles devem comunicar mais ao invés de apenas serem volumosos, já que o atual volume de informações pode ser contraproducente para o indivíduo médio adquirir, reter e processar todas as informações disponíveis. Com base na evidência de literatura contábil anterior sobre o formato de apresentação e as teorias de psicologia, teoria da atribuição e teoria da carga cognitiva, temos a hipótese de que, ao manipular informações contábeis através de um formato amplamente mais acessível, como a narrativa, os investidores individuais serão capazes de compreender melhor as informações contábeis e, posteriormente, ter um uso mais proeminente delas em relação às atuais informações não fundamentais disponíveis para uma avaliação de decisão de investimento. Para alcançar nosso objetivo de pesquisa, utiliza-se uma estratégia de pesquisa de método misto com um Desenho Sequencial Exploratório, o método qualitativo atua como uma preparação para o quantitativo. Como método qualitativo, entrevistou-se - usando a abordagem da Metodologia Q - 31 sujeitos, sendo 13 analistas/investidores profissionais e 18 investidores individuais. O objetivo nesta fase foi entender o padrão de comportamento de uso de informações contábeis/não-contábeis por analistas/investidores profissionais, em comparação com as escolhas de informações de investidores individuais. Ao fazê-lo, puderam-se usar os resultados obtidos das entrevistas para basear as escolhas de informações experimentais em relação a (a) quais peças de informação contábil eram mais preferíveis aos investidores profissionais e (b) a sequência de apresentação de informações a seguir na configuração experimental. Em seguida, desenvolve-se um design experimental 2 x 2 entre os sujeitos em que manipulamos o formato de apresentação de uma empresa hipotética entre o design tradicional \'tabular e notas explicativas\' versus o design narrativo apenas de conteúdo. Foi alterado também o desempenho financeiro entre \'bom\' e \'ruim\' para verificar se as variáveis de interesse impactam (a) propensão de investimento nas ações da empresa e (b) a quantidade de informações recuperadas da memória. Como nossos principais resultados, identificamos que o formato narrativo individualmente não afeta a propensão de investimento e que o formato de apresentação alternativa beneficiou os participantes com menos de 5 anos de experiência de investimento nos mercados de capitais na condição de má performance financeira, ajustando sua propensão ao mesmo nível de investimento de investidores mais experientes.