Detecting human cognitive load is an increasingly important issue in the interaction between humans and machines, computers, and robots. In the past decade, several studies have sought to distinguish the cognitive load, or workload, state of humans based on multiple observations, such as behavioral, physiological, or multi-modal data. In the Human-Machine Interaction (HMI) cases, estimating human workload is essential because manipulators' performance could be adversely affected when they have many tasks that may be demanding. If the workload level can be detected, it will be beneficial to reallocate tasks on manipulators to improve the productivity of HMI tasks. However, it is still on question marks what kinds of cues can be utilized to know the degree of workload. In this research, eye blinking and mouse tracking are chosen as behavioral cues, exploring the possibility of a non-intrusive and automated workload estimator. During tests, behavior cues are statistically analyzed to find the difference among levels, using a dataset focused on three levels of the dual n-back memory game. The statistically analyzed signal is trained in a deep neural network model to classify the workload level. In this study, eye blinking related data and mouse tracking data have been statistically analyzed. The one-way repeated measure analysis of variance test result showed eye blinking duration on the dual 1-back and 3-back are significantly different. The mouse tracking data could not pass the statistical test. A three-dimension convolutional deep neural network is used to train visual data of human behavior. Classifying the dual 1-back and 3-back data accuracy is 51% with 0.66 F1-score on 1-back and 0.14 on 3-back data. In conclusion, blinking and mouse tracking are unlikely helpful cues when estimating different levels of workload. <br>

Hand gestures during speech lighten the speaker's cognitive load, provide lexical access, augment the precision of memory, and identify when a speaker is ready to learn a new skill (Abner, Cooperrider, Goldin-Meadow, 2015). Much of the research that has discovered these purposes of gesture have focused on gestures produced during speech in the speaker's first language. Many researchers use these findings to argue for the same cognitive benefits of gesture in the second language, though only little research of gesture and second language speech has been done. The present study sought to fill the gap between first and second language research on gesture production by investigating the differences between the gesticulation produced by bilinguals in their first and second languages as well as discover their perceptions of those gestures. Native English speakers bilingual in Spanish and native Spanish speakers bilingual in English were interviewed in both languages and their gestures were counted and compared between their first and second languages. Results showed that even though native Spanish speaker's gestured significantly more than native English speakers, all participants significantly increased their gesture production from their first to their second language. Task type also played an important part in this increase, wherein gestures increased only in descriptive and narrative tasks, but not in conversational role plays. Gestures also seemed to increase due to a heightened cognitive load within the tasks more so than due to increased anxiety levels, agreeing with previous research done in first language contexts. Participants also tended to base perceptions of gesture use on native cultural attitudes towards gesture, causing inconclusive results on speaker awareness of their co-speech gesture in either their native or second language. Some limitations suggest that this study be repeated with modifications, such as evaluating participant proficiency before interviewing and matching all participants to a specific range of time immersed in the foreign culture.

Tidigare forskning visar att användandet av lösningsförslag kan vara fördelaktigt för elever som ska lära sig att lösa standarduppgifter inom ett, för eleven, nytt matematikområde. Om elever även bearbetar informationen i lösningsförslaget genom att föra "inre samtal", har det visat sig bidra till ett ännu effektivare lärande. Dessa återkommande resultat refereras numera till som "the worked example effect". Orsakerna till den positiva effekten lösningsförslag har på lärandet förklaras med hjälp av teorier inom den kognitiva forskningen. Att studera lösningsförslag har visat sig vara mindre kognitivt ansträngande jämfört med att lösa standarduppgifter utan tillgång till lösningsförslag. Detta frigör mentala resurser som eleverna kan ägna åt kognitiva aktiviteter som är gynnsamma för lärandet. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur användandet av lösningsförslag, i lärarledda klassrumssituationer, påverkar elevers utveckling av begrepps- och procedur-förmåga, jämfört med traditionell matematikundervisning. Provresultat från 76 elever som haft traditionell undervisning har jämförts med provresultatet från 76 elever som undervisats i en miljö där lösningsförslag har studerats och diskuterats. Provuppgifterna omfattade både imitativa- och kreativa-resonemang vilket innebär att mer än enbart utantillkunskaper har mätts. Ingen påtaglig skillnad mellan elevgruppernas begreppsliga eller procedurmässiga förmågor kunde dock urskiljas i denna studie. Att studera lösningsförslag kan vara en effektiv metod att använda sig av när ingen annan vägledning finns tillgänglig för eleverna. I klassrumsundervisningen kan eleverna även få vägledning från läraren, vilket kan vara en av faktorerna som förklarar det likvärdiga resultatet för de två undervisningsmetoderna i denna studie. / Recent research indicate that learning from worked examples might be superior for novice learners compared to solving traditional math problems without solutions. Learners who also actively process the information in the presented example seem to profit noticeably from this learning mode. These reoccurring findings are now referred to as the "worked example effect". Cognitive load theorists argues that solving conventional problems imposes an extraneous cognitive load that interferers with learning, while worked examples reduces extraneous load which free working memory for germane cognitive activities beneficial for learning. The reason for this study is to examine how the uses of worked examples, in normal teacher-lead classroom conditions, affects conceptual- and procedural-skill acquisition in mathematics, compared to traditional teacher-lead education in Sweden. This is done by comparing the result of 76 tests done by students having traditional education with 76 similar tests done by students having used an educational method called SDL, which involves studying and discussing worked examples. The students are considered as novice within the studied area and the performance measured involves both imitative and creative reasoning. Although earlier studies indicate a superiority of different worked example approaches, no significant difference in skill acquisition between the groups where found in this study. Hence, this study questions the hypothesis that teacher- lead worked examples activities would be superior to traditional educational methods. Studying worked examples might be an effective learning method, when no other guidance is available. In traditional classroom education, guidance can also be given from teachers, which might explain the similar learning outcomes found in this study.

Listening is one of the key skills needed to be proficient in a second language (L2). Some L2 teachers support the development of L2 learners' listening skills by providing input in a different sensory mode (e.g., reading). Nevertheless, developing L2 listening skills using more than one sensory mode, may lead to cognitive overload. In order to provide effective L2 listening instruction, teachers need to know what learning strategies will help students improve their listening skills. This quasi-experimental study examined the benefits of reading a text while listening to it and the effect that reading-while-listening (RWL) has on an L2 learner's listening comprehension. The study was done with intermediate-level, English as a Second Language (ESL) students in two pre-existing classes at the English Language Center (ELC) in Provo, Utah, with one class using a teaching method that included reading and listening together and one class that did no reading, just listening. The results of this study showed that both the control group and treatment group significantly improved their listening comprehension skills over the course of 14 weeks. For the treatment group which had used RWL, however, their listening scores were not significantly different from those of the control group. The pedagogical implications of the findings for second language teachers teaching listening skills are also discussed.

Detta arbete berör arbetsminnets betydelse för matematikinlärning och hur lärare kan arbetaför att optimera lärandet för elever med svagt arbetsminne. Syftet med arbetet var att göra ensammanställning och översikt om vad forskningen säger angående hur elever imatematiksvårigheter utifrån ett svagt arbetsminne kan stöttas i skolan. Avgränsningargjordes till arbetsminnet och dess funktion kopplat till matematiksvårigheter. Andraavgränsningar vi gjorde i arbetet var att utgå från Baddeleys modell av arbetsminnet och thecognitive load theory. Sökningar gjordes i både ERIC och ERC efter relevanta källor. Vianvände oss mestadels av peer review artiklar men utgick även från tidigare kurslitteratur därvi gjorde kedjesökningar utifrån källor i dessa. Forskningen vi har tagit fram och presenterar idetta arbete visar på att arbetsminnets kapacitet har en stor betydande roll för eleversmatematikinlärning. De olika delarna i arbetsminnet ansvarar för olika arbetsuppgifter menresultatet visar att samarbetet mellan dessa delar är väsentlig för att eleven ska kunna ta in nykunskap. För elever med ett svagt arbetsminne är det viktigt med stöttning för att minskabelastningen på arbetsminnet. Forskningen visade att visuellt stöd, meningsfullt och bekantinnehåll samt repetition är stöttning som lärare borde inkludera i sin undervisning för attstötta matematikinlärningen för elever med ett försvagat arbetsminne.

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Cognitive load theory explains the hardship many young learners faces when trying to learn mathematics. The human brain has a limited capacity when trying to process information. The working memory can become overloaded when trying to process too much information, and as a consequence the learner tends to give up. Designers of flight simulators describes this capacity as the pilots brainbudget. By presenting only relevant information the workload for the users can be minimized. This paper aims to study the effect of color for the purpose reducing cognitive load, by answering the following question: Can the use of color improve the learning of mathematics? An experiment was conducted in Stockholm rural area involving 147 students, aged 12-16. Four colors were carefully selected to enhance the learning material and three methods were developed for the purpose of priming colors. In order to measure the effectiveness of color-coded learning material, a digital test tool was designed.  The tool measured various variables such as time, correct answer, attempted tries etc. This allowed a comparison between color coded and grey scaled learning material.  A control group did the math test in black&amp;white and two experimental groups did the same test with color-coded material, however one of the experimental groups was primed prior to the experiment. After the test, the participants conducted a small survey and participated in interviews discussing their perception of the color enhanced instructions. Results showed that both signaling, and priming colors have major impact on the student’s ability to solve mathematical tasks. This indicate that color can be used to facilitate the learning process of mathematics, both in regard to accuracy and reduction of time. / En utmaning för många elever är att ta del av stora mängder av information som presenteras i kurslitteratur, speciellt inom matematiken. Att lära sig komplexa matematiska formler kräver flera tunga processer från arbetsminnet som lätt blir överbelastat. Den här studien tittar på teorin om kognitiv belastning och användning av färger för att underlätta inlärandet med hjälp av signalering och priming, och ämnar att besvara frågan Kan färgkodat inlärningsmaterial förbättra inlärningen av matematik? För att göra det skapades ett digitalt verktyg för ett färgkodat matematiktest. 147 högstadieelever deltog i ett experiment där de delades in i 3 grupper. En kontrollgrupp och två experimentgrupper. Som en del av experimentet fick kontrollgruppen genomföra ett matematiktest med instruktioner i som saknade färg.  Experiment grupperna fick istället svartvitt material och experimentgrupper genomförde samma test med färgkodat material där skillnaden i resultat jämfördes. Efter testerna fick deltagarna fylla i korta enkäter, och därefter blev en del av deltagarna intervjuade i mindre grupper. Under intervjuerna fick deltagarna beskriva deras egna upplevelse kring färgkodat material. Resultatet från experimentet visade att färger hade en klart positiv inverkan på elevernas förmåga att klara uppgifter, samt påvisade kortare inlärningstid. Detta indikerar att färger kan användas för att underlätta inlärandet av matematik. Vidare kan priming leda till ännu mer effektiv inlärning. Användandet av färgkodat inlärningsmaterial uppskattades av eleverna som kände att de lärde sig bättre och behövde anstränga sig mindre.

Gestures and speech have been intertwined since the beginning of human communication. Recently the role of gestures in cognition and learning has become a topic of interest in both cognitive and educational psychology. Some researchers have speculated that gestures inherently communicate information that is not provided in purely verbal communication, and that this supplemental information can lead to more thorough mental models in the receiver by acting on a physical/motor modality in addition to the two modalities proposed in the dual code hypothesis. To further understand this issue, in this study, we examined the effects of watching a gesturing or a non-gesturing lecturer on the learner*s cognitive load and mental model development. The results have implications for cognitive psychology as well as educational psychology, particularly in multimedia learning.

Miscommunication between controllers and pilots, potentially resulting from a high pilot cognitive load, has been a causal or contributing factor in a large number of aviation accidents. In this context, failure to communicate can be attributed, among other factors, to an inadequate human-system interface design, the related high cognitive load imposed on the pilot, and poor performance reflected by a higher error rate. To date, voice radio remains in service without any means for managing pilot cognitive load by design (as opposed to training or procedures). Such an oversight is what prompted this dissertation. The goals of this study were (a) to investigate the utility of a voice-to-text transcription (V-T-T) of ATC clearances in managing pilot's cognitive load during controller-pilot communications within the context of a modern flight deck environment, and (b) to validate whether a model of variable relationships which is generated in the domain of learning and instruction would "transfer", and to what extend, to an operational domain. First, within the theoretical framework built for this dissertation, all the pertaining factors were analyzed. Second, by using the process of synthesis, and based on guidelines generated from that theoretical framework, a redundant verbal display of ATC clearances (i.e., a V-T-T) was constructed. Third, the synthesized device was empirically examined. Thirty four pilots participated in the study – seventeen pilots with 100-250 total flight hours and seventeen with > 500 total flight hours. All participants had flown within sixty days prior to attending the study. The experiment was conducted one pilot at a time in 2.5-hour blocks. A 2 Verbal Display Redundancy (no-redundancy and redundancy) X 2 Verbal Input Complexity (low and high) X 2 Level of Expertise (novices and experts) mixed-model design was used for the study with 5 IFR clearances in each Redundancy X Complexity condition. The results showed that the amounts of iii reduction of cognitive load and improvement of performance, when verbal display redundancy was provided, were in the range of about 20%. These results indicated that V-T-T is a device which has a tremendous potential to serve as (a) a pilot memory aid, (b) a way to verify a clearance has been captured correctly without having to make a "Say again" call, and (c) to ultimately improve the margin of safety by reducing the propensity for human error for the majority of pilot populations including those with English as a second language. Fourth, the results from the validation of theoretical models "transfer" showed that although cognitive load remained as a significant predictor of performance, both complexity and redundancy also had unique significant effects on performance. Furthermore, these results indicated that the relationship between these variables was not as "clear-cut" in the operational domain investigated here as the models from the domain of learning and instruction suggested. Until further research is conducted, (a) to investigate how changes in the operational task settings via adding additional coding (e.g., permanent record of clearances which can serve as both a memory aid and a way to verify a clearance is captured correctly) affect performance through mechanisms other than cognitive load; and (b) unless the theoretical models are modified to reflect how changes in the input variables impact the outcome in a variety of ways; a degree of prudence should be exercised when the results from the model "transfer" validation are applied to operational environments similar to the one investigated in this dissertation research.

The visual content represented on information displays used in training environments prescribe display attributes as brightness, color, contrast, and motion blur, but considerations regarding cognitive processes corresponding to these visual features require further attention in order to optimize the display for training applications. This dissertation describes an empirical study with which information display features, specifically color and motion blur reduction, were investigated to assess their impact in a training scenario involving visual search and threat detection. Presented in this document is a review of the theory and literature describing display technology, its applications to training, and how eye-tracking systems can be used to objectively measure cognitive activity. The experiment required participants to complete a threat identification task, while altering the displays settings beforehand, to assess the utility of the display capabilities. The data obtained led to the conclusion that motion blur had a stronger impact on perceptual load than the addition of color. The increased perceptual load resulted in approximately 8- 10% longer fixation durations for all display conditions and a similar decrease in the number of saccades, but only when motion blur reduction was used. No differences were found in terms of threat location or threat identification accuracy, so it was concluded that the effects of perceptual load were independent of germane cognitive load.