Widely applicable, quantitative field methods are needed to gather wildlife data for conservation and management initiatives in Turkey. In order to evaluate the use of camera traps in forest habitats of Turkey, we conducted a 5 phase camera trap survey by using 16 passive infrared-triggered cameras with a total sampling effort of 1200 camera trap days in Yaylacik Research Forest, a 50 km2 forest patch of Yenice Forest in Karab&uuml / k during January-May 2006. The camera trap survey confirmed the presence of grey wolf (Canis lupus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), wildcat (Felis silvestris), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), badger (Meles meles), pine marten (Martes martes), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) in the study area. The camera trap survey also revealed the presence of jackal (Canis aureus) and brown hare (Lepus europaeus), whose presence were not known by people living and working in the area. Contrary to the local belief, neither camera trapping survey nor ground survey confirmed the presence of lynx (Lynx lynx) in Yaylacik Research Forest. The wolf was observed to be crepuscular and the wildcat showed a diurnal activity pattern. Wildcat seemed to avoid other carnivores spatially and temporally. Simulation studies suggested that camera trap surveys should last 14 days for wolf, 13 days for wildcat, 10 days for pine marten, and 11 days for roe deer, while it is advisable to conduct longer surveys, probably 15-20 days, for wild boar, red fox and brown bears. The estimated population size for wildcat was 9 (SE=2.28227) with 95% confidence interval of 9 to 25 in the study area. A minimum of 6 brown bears were present in the study area. Our study indicated that the local knowledge about the presence of wildlife should be considered by researchers, but it cannot replace scientific surveys conducted by field biologists. This study was the first attempt to assess the presence, relative abundance, activity patterns and diversity of multiple mammal species by the use of camera trapping methodology in Turkey. The results suggest that camera trap surveys have the potential for gathering wildlife data at larger scales in Turkey, where information gap on large mammals is an obstacle for effective management and conservation of mammals.

Information about large mammals in Turkey usually does not go further than species lists or annual counts of particular species such as the wild goat. Camera trapping is a very useful technique to overcome this deficiency by gathering information about species presence, numbers, habitat use and behavior. Hence, a one year long camera trap study was conducted to demonstrate the diversity, activity, distribution patterns, habitat preferences and interspecific interactions of medium and large mammals in a 148 km2 large pine woodland near Ankara. Brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), golden jackal (Canis aureus), jungle cat (Felis chaus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Eurasian badger (Meles meles), stone marten (Martes foina), red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), brown hare (Lepus europaeus), Caucasian squirrel (Sciurus anomalus) and southern white-breasted hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor) were the 13 mammal species captured during the study. Spatial segregation was observed among canid species indicating intraguild competition and competitive exclusion. Prey-predator interactions were documented at both spatial and temporal scales between wolves, deer and wild boars. Red deer showed seasonal and sex differences in activity patterns that appeared to be influenced by wolf predation risk. The presence of two felids unknown to the local people were revealed by camera trapping, showing the utility of this technique for such secretive and rare species. However, the low encounter rates for particular species such as lynx, brown bear and jungle cat indicated the importance of the length of study. Based on various evidence, resident adult population sizes were estimated for wolf (2-5), Eurasian lynx (2-4), brown bear (0-2) and jungle cat (2-3). The study showed that lynx can exist in high densities in a relatively small area when prey species are abundant. This study area hosted a rich mammal fauna in spite of human activities such as livestock grazing, logging and hunting. A relatively intact ecosystem, high altitudinal and habitat diversity, and a positive attitude of local people are believed to be the reasons of this observed high diversity.

Forty-four wolves in 3 boreal forest sites in Ontario were monitored via GPS radiotelemetry during 2010 and 2011 to examine spatial responses to variation in prey density. Home ranges were defined using a Brownian bridge utilization distribution, and a resource utilization function was calculated for each pack in winter and summer, based on habitat, topography, and prey density. Wolf territories were smaller where moose density was higher. Third order selection (within home range) varied by pack and season. Wolves generally selected for sloping areas, areas near water, and stands with deciduous or regenerating forest, but selected against areas with dense conifer cover. Roads were most important in summer, especially in those territories with large road networks. Habitat use in a mild winter was similar to habitat use in summer. Variable resource selection among packs emphasizes the adaptable, generalist nature of wolves even in the relatively homogenous the boreal shield. / National Science and Engineering Research Council, Ontario Graduate Scholarships, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources - Wildlife Research and Development Section, Center for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Canadian Forest Service, Forest Ecosystem Science Cooperative

The abundance and population density of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) were studied during two winters 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 in the in Beskydy and Kysuce protected landscape areas in the West Carpathians in the Czech-Slovak borderline. A combination of camera trapping, photographic capture-mark-recapture (CMR) and simultaneously conducted snow tracking revealed 11 independent lynx in both seasons in the total area of 1500 km2 and overall population density of 0.7 lynx/100 km2. High population turnover of 54.5% was documented between the two winters, indicating a strong anthropogenic pressure at the edge of the West Carpathian population. The main prey of Eurasian lynx in winter was a roe deer (81%) and red deer (16%). The occurrence of wolves (Canis lupus) was considered to be sporadic and probably limited to only a few individuals. The nearest reproductive packs were documented at a distance of 10--50 km from the Czech border in the Slovak Carpathians.

Long-distance vocalizations by canids play an important role in communication among individuals. I evaluated efficacy of broadcasted coyote (Canis latrans) group-yip calls and gray wolf (C. lupus) lone howls to elicit vocal responses from 18 GPS-collared coyotes on 144 occasions. I concluded that eliciting coyote vocalizations where wolves are present will not bias responses, and recommend eliciting coyote vocalizations using recorded coyote group-yip howls during July–September to estimate species’ presence or density. From foraging theory, generalist predators should increase consumption of prey if prey availability increases. I estimated densities for coyotes, adult deer, and fawns, and collected coyote scat to estimate occurrence and biomass of adult and fawn deer consumed by coyotes during 2 periods. I suggest that consumption rates of coyotes was associated positively with increases in fawn density, and fawn consumption by coyotes follows predictions of foraging theory during this pulsed resource event.

The dog was the first animal to be domesticated and the process started at least 15 000 years ago. Today it is the most morphologically diverse mammal, with a huge variation in size and shape. Dogs have always been useful to humans in several ways, from being a food source, hunting companion, guard, social companion and lately also a model for scientific research. This thesis describes some of the changes that have occurred in the dog’s genome, both during the domestication process and later through breed creation. To give a more comprehensive view, three genetic systems were studied: maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, paternally inherited Y chromosome and biparental autosomal chromosomes. I also sequenced complete mitochondrial genomes to view the effect new living conditions might have had on dogs’ genes after domestication. Finally, knowledge of the genetic structure in purebred dogs was used to test analytic methods usable in other species or in natural populations where little information is available. The domestication process appears to have caused a relaxation of the selective constraint in the mitochondrial genome, leading to a faster rate of accumulation of nonsynonymous changes in the mitochondrial genes. Later, the process of breed creation resulted in genetically separated breed groups. Breeds are a result from an unequal contribution of males and females with only a few popular sires contributing and a larger amount of dams. However, modern breeder preferences might lead to disruptive selective forces within breeds, which can result in additional fragmentation of breeds. The increase in linkage disequilibrium that this represents increases the value of purebred dogs as model organisms for the identification and mapping of diseases and traits. Purebred dogs’ potential for these kinds of studies will probably increase the more we know about the dog’s genome.

Polymorphism in coding regions and regions controlling gene expression is the major determinant of adaptive differences in natural populations. Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) possess a high level of genetic variation, which is maintained by selection over long coalescence times. MHC genes encode antigen-presenting molecules in the adaptive immune system, which protects the host from infectious diseases. However, MHC molecules may also present self-peptides and for most autoimmune diseases there is a genetic factor associated with the MHC. MHC genes have been used to learn about the interplay of selection and historical population events. In domestic dogs and their progenitor, the wolf, I explored factors associated with domestication and breed formation and their influence not only on MHC coding regions but also on the haplotypic structure of the class II region. Polymorphism and strong selection was demonstrated in the proximal promoters of MHC genes in dogs and wolves. Hence, genetic variation associated with MHC gene expression may have at least equal importance for a well functioning immune system. Associations between promoter sequences and particular coding alleles suggested allele-specific expression patterns. SNP haplotypes of the MHC class II region revealed ancestral as well as convergent haplotypes, in which combinations of alleles are kept by selection. Interestingly, weaker allelic associations were found between different genes and between coding regions and promoters in dogs compared to wolves. Potentially, this could cause insufficient defense against infections and predispose dogs to autoimmune diseases. For example, I identified a site in the promoter region that showed a consistent difference between haplotypes conferring susceptibility and protection to diabetes in dogs, which should be investigated further. Furthermore, I investigated how selection and demographic changes associated with glacial and inter-glacial periods have affected MHC variation in European hedgehogs and extended the prevailing knowledge concerning their population history.

Submitted by (edna.saturno@ufrpe.br) on 2016-07-18T15:45:44Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Adriana Katia da Rocha Neves.pdf: 642559 bytes, checksum: 6e769e8fbed7f307d302b2c25dae6abb (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-18T15:45:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Adriana Katia da Rocha Neves.pdf: 642559 bytes, checksum: 6e769e8fbed7f307d302b2c25dae6abb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-18 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The overpopulation of dogs in urban areas causes serious problems to public health and animal welfare. Alternative methods of contraception have been widely discussed, but there is still controversy regarding the painful effects of sclerosing agents. This study aimed to characterize the degree of discomfort caused by chemical castration by zinc gluconate intratesticular injection and compare it with the conventional procedure of orchiectomy, taking into consideration both behavioral and biochemical parameters, and also to evaluate the degree of sensitivity of such parameters. This study was conducted in the city of Recife, Brazil, between April and December 2013. Nineteen male dogs were randomly divided into three groups: G1 (control – subjected to anesthesia only), G2 (orchiectomy) and G3 (zinc gluconate intratesticular injection). The evaluations were performed at five different moments ( M0 , M1 , M2 , M3 and M4 ) , in which were evaluated plasma cortisol , serum glucose , stress leukogram ( neutrophils / lymphocyte ) and pain level according to the Melbourne Scale. No significant differences in the concentrations of cortisol and leukocyte count were found. The degree of discomfort was higher in G2, despite not exceeding the mild pain score according to the Melbourne Scale. Serum glucose concentration was statistically higher in G3 compared with G2, even though both were similar to the control group. In face of the results it was concluded that chemical sterilization causes similar discomfort to that generated by orchiectomy procedure and can be used as a routine procedure in the control of fertility in dogs. / A superpopulação de cães nos centros urbanos ocasiona sérios problemas de saúde pública e bem-estar animal. Métodos alternativos de contracepção têm sido bastante discutidos, mas ainda existe polêmica no que diz respeito ao efeito álgico dos agentes esclerosantes. Este trabalho teve o propósito de caracterizar o grau de desconforto causado pela castração química por meio da injeção intratesticular de gluconato de zinco e comparar com o procedimento convencional da orquiectomia, levando-se em consideração parâmetros comportamentais e bioquímicos, além de avaliar o grau de sensibilidade de tais parâmetros. O presente estudo foi conduzido na cidade do Recife, Brasil, entre os meses de abril a dezembro de 2013. Dezenove cães machos foram distribuídos aleatoriamente em três grupos: G1 (controle – submetidos apenas à procedimento anestésico), G2 (orquiectomia) e G3 (injeção intratesticular de gluconato de zinco). As avaliações foram realizadas em cinco diferentes momentos (M0, M1, M2, M3 e M4), onde foram avaliados cortisol plasmático, glicose sérica, leucograma de estresse (neutrófilos/linfócitos) e grau de desconforto por meio da Escala de Melbourne. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas nas concentrações de cortisol e contagem de leucócitos. O grau de desconforto foi maior no G2, apesar de não ultrapassar o escore de dor leve segundo a Escala de Melbourne. A concentração sérica de glicose foi estatisticamente maior no G3 quando comparada com o G2, embora ambos tenham sido semelhantes ao grupo controle. Diante dos resultados concluiu-se que a esterilização química causa um desconforto similar àquele gerado pelo procedimento de orquiectomia, podendo ser utilizado como procedimento de rotina no controle da fertilidade de cães.

Abstract Many species and populations have perished as a consequence of human actions. During the last ~200 years, large carnivores have been almost completely extirpated from Western Europe. Large-scale wolf hunting started in Finland around the 1850s, and the population size quickly collapsed. The population was very small until the mid-1990s, when wolves started to regularly reproduce in Finland again. The wolf is an endangered species in Finland, and the biggest threat to the species’ survival is excessive hunting. In this doctoral thesis study, I inspected the genetic structure and diversity of the Finnish wolf population using neutral genetic markers. Almost 300 wolves from the contemporary Finnish population and over 50 wolves from the north-western Russia were analyzed with genetic methods. Additionally, the genetic history of the population was examined with the help of over 100 museum samples. The modern Finnish wolf population proved to be genetically as diverse as the non-endangered Eastern European and North American wolf populations. However, the genetic diversity decreased significantly during the study period (1995–2009), and was at its lowest level in the final phase of the examination. In tandem, the inbreeding coefficient rose to a relatively high level. Genetic sub-structures were observed due to social structures within wolf packs. The mean dispersal distances of wolves were approximately only 100 km. The Finnish wolf population is divided into neighbourhoods of related individuals, and their size substantially decreased during the study period. This pattern, together with the growth of the inbreeding coefficient, suggests that lost alpha individuals in wolf packs are replaced by their offspring. This study demonstrated that Russian and Finnish wolf populations are nowadays genetically differentiated. Gene flow between the populations is low, despite the geographic interconnection. Only a few possible immigrants from Russia into Finland were detected in the study. The effective size of the Finnish wolf population proved to be small, and was mainly below the often-considered critical size of 50. Historical analysis revealed that the Finnish wolf population was formerly genetically more diverse, more continuous with the Russian wolf population, and had a more than 90% larger effective size. On the basis of this study, the genetic status of the Finnish wolf population is worrying and needs to be monitored. The population should be substantially larger than today and/or the amount of gene flow higher, so that the population viability could be considered secured even in the short term. / Tiivistelmä Ihmisen toiminnan seurauksena lukuisat eliölajit ja –populaatiot ovat hävinneet. Viimeisten noin 200 vuoden aikana suurpedot hävitettiin lähes koko Länsi-Euroopasta. Laajamittainen sudenmetsästys alkoi Suomessa 1850-luvun paikkeilla ja kanta romahti nopeasti. Populaatio oli hyvin pieni lähes koko 1900-luvun, ja sudet ovat jälleen lisääntyneet yhtäjaksoisesti Suomessa vasta 1990-luvun puolivälistä. Susi on erittäin uhanalainen Suomessa ja merkittävin uhka lajin säilymiselle on liiallinen metsästys. Tarkastelen tässä väitöskirjatyössäni Suomen susipopulaation geneettistä rakennetta ja monimuotoisuutta neutraaleja geenimerkkejä käyttäen. Tutkimuksessa analysoitiin geneettisin menetelmin lähes 300 sutta nyky-Suomesta sekä yli 50 sutta Luoteis-Venäjältä. Lisäksi populaation geneettistä historiaa selvitettiin yli 100 museonäytteen avulla. Nykyinen Suomen susipopulaatio osoittautui tutkimuksessa geneettisesti yhtä monimuotoiseksi kuin ei-uhanalaiset susipopulaatiot Itä-Euroopassa ja Pohjois-Amerikassa. Geneettisen muuntelun määrä kuitenkin laski tutkimusajanjaksolla (1995–2009) merkitsevästi ollen matalin tarkastelujakson lopussa. Samanaikaisesti populaation sukusiitoskerroin nousi verrattain korkeaksi. Susipopulaatiossa havaittiin sosiaalisista rakenteista johtuvia geneettisiä alarakenteita. Susien dispersaalimatkat olivat keskimäärin vain noin 100 km. Suomen susipopulaatio on jakautunut toisilleen sukua olevien yksilöiden naapurustoiksi, joiden koko pieneni huomattavasti tutkimusajanjaksolla. Tämä yhdessä sukusiitoskertoimen kasvun kanssa viittaa susilaumojen menetettyjen alfayksilöiden korvautumiseen jälkeläisillään. Tutkimus osoitti, että Venäjän ja Suomen susipopulaatiot ovat nykyisin geneettisesti erilaistuneet. Geenivirta populaatioiden välillä on maantieteellisestä yhteydestä huolimatta vähäistä. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin vain muutamia todennäköisiä immigrantteja Venäjältä Suomeen. Suomen susipopulaation efektiivinen koko osoittautui pieneksi ollen pääosin alle kriittisenä rajana pidetyn 50:en. Historiallinen tarkastelu osoitti Suomen susipopulaation olleen aiemmin geneettisesti monimuotoisempi, yhtenäisempi Venäjän susipopulaation kanssa ja efektiiviseltä kooltaan yli 90 % nykyistä suurempi. Tutkimuksen perusteella Suomen susipopulaation geneettinen tila on huolestuttava ja tarvitsee seurantaa. Populaation tulisi olla nykyistä huomattavasti suurempi ja/tai geenivirran määrän korkeampi, jotta populaation elinvoimaisuuden voitaisiin katsoa olevan turvattu edes lyhyellä aikavälillä.

Abstract The grey wolf is the most widely distributed of all land mammals and is a habitat generalist that inhabits all the vegetation types of the Northern Hemisphere. Wolves also breed well and have the potential to rapidly expand to new areas. In Finland, the wolf is a game species, and as a result of Finland’s membership of the European Union, the wolf population is subject to very limited hunting due to the obligation to protect the species. Mainly for this reason, the wolf population in Finland has increased significantly in recent years. In particular, the birth rate has developed favourably and the number of litters increased from just four in 1996 to 20 in 2005. It also seems at present that the wolf population in Finland is no longer following the fluctuations in wolf numbers in Russian Karelia. The general aim of this dissertation is to provide applicable knowledge for wolf management and conservation purposes, and especially to examine the effects of human-modified landscapes on wolf population expansion in Finland. Various aspects of habitat selection were investigated in four sub-studies to gain a thorough insight into the space use and habitat needs of wolves. Species data came from a long-term wolf population study that included location information from 85 radio- and GPS-GSM-collared wolves from 1998 onwards, as well as track location data based on about 30 000 annual observations recorded with geographical coordinates by a local network of experts on large carnivores. I found that adaptability makes it possible for the wolf to live in the multiple-use, semi-wild forests of Finland and that no restrictions are imposed by the landscape on wolf population growth and expansion. In general, the results of my dissertation provide evidence that wolves tend to avoid the presence of human influence when establishing a territory and also when selecting their den site. However, as wolf numbers increase, conflict situations will more frequently occur between wolves and humans, although the risk of depredation events, for example among sheep farms, varies between farms in Finland. That is, there are some environmental and farm level factors that are associated with wolf depredation. The breeding wolf population in Finland has gradually expanded and the first litters have recently been born in western Finland after an absence of more than 100 years. The geographical distance to the Scandinavian population is shorter from these new western territories than from the population’s core area in eastern Finland. This could potentially increase the likelihood of dispersal from Finland to Scandinavia. / Tiivistelmä Susi on habitaattigeneralisti, jonka levinneisyys kattaa kaikki pohjoisen pallonpuoliskon kasvillisuustyypit. Sudet myös lisääntyvät hyvin ja voivat näin ollen levittäytyä nopeasti uusille alueille. Suomessa susi on riistalaji, jonka metsästys on rajoitettua Euroopan unionin jäsenyyden myötä. Lähinnä tästä syystä Suomen susikanta on kasvanut voimakkaasti 1990-luvun ja 2000-luvun alun aikana. Erityisesti syntyvyys on kasvanut: pentueiden määrä lisääntyi neljästä 20:een vuosien 1996 ja 2005 välillä. Näyttäisi siltä, ettei Suomen nykyinen susipopulaatio enää seuraa Venäjän Karjalassa tapahtuvia kannanvaihteluita. Väitöskirjan tavoitteena on ollut tuottaa susikannan hoidossa ja suojelussa käytettävissä olevaa tietoa ja erityisesti tutkia susikannan levittäytymistä ihmisen muokkaamassa ympäristössä Suomessa. Neljässä osatutkimuksessa on käsitelty suden habitaatinvalintaa eri näkökulmista, jotta saataisiin kokonaiskuva suden tilankäytöstä Suomessa. Tutkimusaineisto rakentui pitkäaikaisesta seuranta-aineistosta, jota on kerätty vuodesta 1989 lähtien. Vuosien 1989 ja 2010 välillä 85 sutta on pannoitettu radio- tai GPS-GSM –pannalla. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin hyväksi myös noin 30 000 vuosittain tehtyä jälkihavaintoa. Tutkimustulosten perusteella susi selviää hyvin Suomen monikäyttömetsissä, eivätkä maisematyypit itsestään rajoita susipopulaation kasvua ja levittäytymistä. Toisaalta tulokset osoittavat myös sen, että sudet välttelevät ihmistoimintoja valitessaan reviiri- tai pesäpaikkoja. Kuitenkin susien lukumäärän kasvaessa ristiriitatilanteet susien ja ihmisten välillä tulevat lisääntymään, vaikka susivahinkoriskin suuruus vaihteleekin Suomessa huomattavasti. Esimerkiksi lammastilojen susivahinkoriski riippuu sekä ympäristötekijöistä, että tilan sisäisistä tekijöistä. Kaiken kaikkiaan lisääntyvän susipopulaation esiintymisalue on Suomessa vähitellen kasvanut leviten itärajan tuntumasta kohti länttä. Tämän myötä maantieteellinen etäisyys Skandinavian susipopulaatioon on pienentynyt viimeisten vuosien aikana. Tämä voi edesauttaa susiyksilöiden siirtymistä Suomesta Skandinaviaan.