Marine organisms are widely recognized sources of an impressive array of structurally unusual compounds. Marine natural products have exhibited interesting biomedical activities, provided targets for synthetic organic chemists, and afforded opportunities for elucidation of enzymatic mechanisms involved in biosyntheses of these molecules. Secondary metabolite pathways probably evolved to mediate interactions between organisms in their natural habitats; however, the ecological functions of natural products remain poorly understood for the vast majority of cases. In the present series of investigations, I evaluate the hypothesis that macroalgal natural products play a role in defending these organisms against potentially pathogenic microbes in the marine environment. Further, I combine these ecology-driven investigations with evaluation of algal natural products as sources of novel human drugs. This combined approach resulted in discovery of 15 novel natural products from two tropical red algae, Callophycus serratus and an unidentified crustose red alga. These new molecules included seven novel carbon-carbon connectivity patterns, not previously reported in the synthetic or natural product literature, illustrating the abundance of secondary metabolite diversity among marine macroalgae. Further, many compounds exhibited both biomedical and ecological activities, suggesting the synergistic potential of combined biomedical/ecological investigations in providing drug leads as well as insights into the natural functions of secondary metabolites. Bromophycolides and callophycoic acids, natural products from C. serratus, inhibited growth of the marine fungal pathogen Lindra thalassiae. Spatially-resolved desorption ionization mass spectrometry (DESI-MS) revealed that antifungal natural products were found at specific sites on algal surfaces. The heterogeneous presentation of antimicrobial chemical defenses on host surfaces suggests the potential importance of spatial scale in understanding host-pathogen interactions, and illustrates the capacity of mass spectrometry imaging in understanding chemically-mediated biological processes. Finally, assessment of antimicrobial chemical defenses among extracts from 72 collections of tropical red algae revealed that nearly all algae were defended against at least one marine pathogen or saprophyte and further suggested the untapped potential of ecological investigations in the discovery of novel chemistry.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A introdução de espécies invasoras marinhas tem causado danos econômicos e ecológicos consideráveis em todo o mundo. Algumas destas espécies incluindo corais escleractíneos possuem adaptações, tais como metabólitos secundários utilizados para evitar a predação e competição por espaço por outros organismos. Este arsenal químico e as interações entre espécies invasoras e nativas podem causar alterações na distribuição das espécies e na estrutura das comunidades de costões rochosos tropicais. Os objetivos deste estudo foram (1) caracterizar os metabólitos secundários produzidos pelos corais invasores Tubastraea tagusensis e T. coccinea na Baía da Ilha Grande, Brasil, (2) detectar os compostos químicos liberados pelos tecidos de Tubastraea tagusensis in situ utilizando um aparelho submersível; (3) testar no campo os extratos metanólicos produzidos por ambas as espécies de Tubastraea contra a predação por peixes generalistas e assentamento de outros organismos, (4) testar no campo se os compostos químicos produzidos por ambos os corais invasores variaram na concentração ou tipo quando os corais foram colocados próximos de competidores nativos e (5) determinar como as comunidades de costões rochosos da Baía da Ilha Grande foram afetadas pela expansão de Tubastraea coccinea e T. tagusensis em 8 locais estudados durante 2 anos. As principais classes de substâncias encontradas nos extratos metanólicos de Tubastraea foram identificados como esteróis, ácidos graxos, hidrocarbonetos, alcalóides, ésteres e alcoóis, entretanto, o aparelho submersível identificou somente hidrocarbonetos liberados por Tubastraea na água do mar. O extrato metanólico de T. tagusensis reduziu a predação por peixes generalistas e já os extratos de ambas as espécies mostraram efeitos espécie-específicos sobre organismos incrustantes no campo. No experimento de interação competitiva foi detectada a presença de necrose nos tecidos do coral endêmico Mussismilia hispida e isso provocou variação nas concentrações de esteróis, alcalóides e ácidos graxos nos tecidos de Tubastraea. Em contraste, a esponja Desmapsamma anchorata cresceu sobre os tecidos das colônias de ambos os corais invasores. A presença de Tubastraea nas comunidades bentônicas causou uma dissimilaridade média de 4,8% nas comunidades invadidas. Uma forte relação positiva foi encontrada entre a cobertura de Tubastraea e a mudança na estrutura da comunidade da Baía da Ilha Grande. Portanto, os efeitos negativos de ambos os corais invasores são suficientes para acarretar mudanças na estrutura das comunidades bentônicas tropicais. / Invasive marine species has caused economic and ecological damage around the world. Some scleractinian corals possess secondary metabolites used to avoid predation and to help them in competition for space with other organisms. The negative action of chemical substances in the interactions between invasive and native species may produce changes on community structure in tropical rocky shores. This study showed (1) the secondary metabolites produced by the invasive corals Tubastraea tagusensis and T. coccinea in Ilha Grande Bay, Brazil; (2) chemical compounds released by Tubastraea tagusensis tissues in situ using a submersible apparatus; (3) the action of MeOH extracts produced by both species of Tubastraea against predation by generalist fish and settlement of other organisms in the field; (4) variation on class and concentration of chemical compounds produced by these invasive corals when these species were placed in proximity to native competitors and (5) changes on rocky shore community structure due to expansion of Tubastraea coccinea and T. tagusensis after 2 years of study. The main classes of compounds detected by GC / MS in the MeOH extracts of Tubastraea were identified as sterols, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, alkaloids, esters and alcohols. The submersible apparatus identified only hydrocarbons released by Tubastraea in situ. The MeOH extract of T. tagusensis reduced generalist fish predation and the MeOH extracts of both Tubastraea species showed species-specific effects on fouling organisms in the field. The competition experiment showed necrosis in the tissues of the native coral Mussismilia hispida and variation in sterols, alkaloids and fatty acid concentrations in Tubastraea tissues. The opposite behavior was sawn, the sponge Desmapsamma anchorata overgrew Tubastraea colonies. The presence of Tubastraea in the benthic communities caused a mean dissimilarity of 4.8% in the invaded communities. A positive relationship between invader cover and change in Ilha Grande community structure was found and, therefore, Tubastraea is a threat to native benthic communities throughout the tropical Oceans.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A introdução de espécies invasoras marinhas tem causado danos econômicos e ecológicos consideráveis em todo o mundo. Algumas destas espécies incluindo corais escleractíneos possuem adaptações, tais como metabólitos secundários utilizados para evitar a predação e competição por espaço por outros organismos. Este arsenal químico e as interações entre espécies invasoras e nativas podem causar alterações na distribuição das espécies e na estrutura das comunidades de costões rochosos tropicais. Os objetivos deste estudo foram (1) caracterizar os metabólitos secundários produzidos pelos corais invasores Tubastraea tagusensis e T. coccinea na Baía da Ilha Grande, Brasil, (2) detectar os compostos químicos liberados pelos tecidos de Tubastraea tagusensis in situ utilizando um aparelho submersível; (3) testar no campo os extratos metanólicos produzidos por ambas as espécies de Tubastraea contra a predação por peixes generalistas e assentamento de outros organismos, (4) testar no campo se os compostos químicos produzidos por ambos os corais invasores variaram na concentração ou tipo quando os corais foram colocados próximos de competidores nativos e (5) determinar como as comunidades de costões rochosos da Baía da Ilha Grande foram afetadas pela expansão de Tubastraea coccinea e T. tagusensis em 8 locais estudados durante 2 anos. As principais classes de substâncias encontradas nos extratos metanólicos de Tubastraea foram identificados como esteróis, ácidos graxos, hidrocarbonetos, alcalóides, ésteres e alcoóis, entretanto, o aparelho submersível identificou somente hidrocarbonetos liberados por Tubastraea na água do mar. O extrato metanólico de T. tagusensis reduziu a predação por peixes generalistas e já os extratos de ambas as espécies mostraram efeitos espécie-específicos sobre organismos incrustantes no campo. No experimento de interação competitiva foi detectada a presença de necrose nos tecidos do coral endêmico Mussismilia hispida e isso provocou variação nas concentrações de esteróis, alcalóides e ácidos graxos nos tecidos de Tubastraea. Em contraste, a esponja Desmapsamma anchorata cresceu sobre os tecidos das colônias de ambos os corais invasores. A presença de Tubastraea nas comunidades bentônicas causou uma dissimilaridade média de 4,8% nas comunidades invadidas. Uma forte relação positiva foi encontrada entre a cobertura de Tubastraea e a mudança na estrutura da comunidade da Baía da Ilha Grande. Portanto, os efeitos negativos de ambos os corais invasores são suficientes para acarretar mudanças na estrutura das comunidades bentônicas tropicais. / Invasive marine species has caused economic and ecological damage around the world. Some scleractinian corals possess secondary metabolites used to avoid predation and to help them in competition for space with other organisms. The negative action of chemical substances in the interactions between invasive and native species may produce changes on community structure in tropical rocky shores. This study showed (1) the secondary metabolites produced by the invasive corals Tubastraea tagusensis and T. coccinea in Ilha Grande Bay, Brazil; (2) chemical compounds released by Tubastraea tagusensis tissues in situ using a submersible apparatus; (3) the action of MeOH extracts produced by both species of Tubastraea against predation by generalist fish and settlement of other organisms in the field; (4) variation on class and concentration of chemical compounds produced by these invasive corals when these species were placed in proximity to native competitors and (5) changes on rocky shore community structure due to expansion of Tubastraea coccinea and T. tagusensis after 2 years of study. The main classes of compounds detected by GC / MS in the MeOH extracts of Tubastraea were identified as sterols, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, alkaloids, esters and alcohols. The submersible apparatus identified only hydrocarbons released by Tubastraea in situ. The MeOH extract of T. tagusensis reduced generalist fish predation and the MeOH extracts of both Tubastraea species showed species-specific effects on fouling organisms in the field. The competition experiment showed necrosis in the tissues of the native coral Mussismilia hispida and variation in sterols, alkaloids and fatty acid concentrations in Tubastraea tissues. The opposite behavior was sawn, the sponge Desmapsamma anchorata overgrew Tubastraea colonies. The presence of Tubastraea in the benthic communities caused a mean dissimilarity of 4.8% in the invaded communities. A positive relationship between invader cover and change in Ilha Grande community structure was found and, therefore, Tubastraea is a threat to native benthic communities throughout the tropical Oceans.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Plants have evolved various strategies to defend themselves against herbivory. Under herbivore attack, they emit volatile organic compounds that indirectly defend the plant, by attracting herbivore s natural enemies or directly by repelling the herbivore. The coconut tree, Cocus nucifera, is grown in all regions of the country, being predominant in the northeast and hold socio-economic importance for the country. In this sense, the objective of this study was to characterize the emission of volatiles by C. nucifera induced upon herbivory of Brassolis sophorae caterpillars and to assess the behavioral response of Winthemia analis, larval parasitoid of B. sophorae, to B. sophorae induced volatiles. In addition, the biology of W. analis was studied. Were collected, using the aeration process, volatiles emitted by C. nucifera under the following treatments: 1 undamaged plants; 2 mechanically-damaged plants and 3 plants upon herbivory of Brassolis sophorae caterpillars. The collected volatiles were chemically analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The behavioral response of the parasitoid to the induced compounds was tested in a Y-tube olfactometer, and the life cycle was determined from 79 larvae emerged from 28 B. sophorae pupae. The compounds nonanal, decanal and two ketones, geranyl acetone and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, were identified in the samples containing volatiles emitted by C. nucifera 48h after the application of the three treatments. The homoterpene (E)-4-8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene (DMNT) was identified only in the samples containing volatiles emitted by C. nucifera upon herbivory of Brassolis sophorae caterpillars and mechanically-damaged plants. The DMNT contribution was higher in the sample emitted by plants upon herbivory of Brassolis sophorae caterpillars than in the samples emitted by mechanically-damaged plants. W. analis files were not attracted to the odors emitted by C. nucifera upon herbivory of Brassolis sophorae caterpillars. The emergence rate of adults was about 73%. Were possible to check sexual dimorphism in the adults wings using geometric morphometric (p<0.0001). The morphological analysis of the W. analis adults show one characteristic in the male abdomen. / As plantas apresentam diversas estratégias de defesa contra herbivoria. Muitas plantas, quando atacadas emitem compostos orgânicos voláteis que auxiliam na sua defesa, por meio da atração de inimigos naturais dos herbívoros ou repelindo diretamente o herbívoro. O coqueiro, Cocus nucifera, tem seu cultivo presente em todas as regiões do país, sendo predominante na região nordeste e apresenta uma grande importância social e econômica para o país. Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a liberação de voláteis de C. nucifera induzidos pela herbivoria de lagartas de Brassolis sophorae e a resposta comportamental de Winthemia analis, parasitoide de lagartas de B. sophorae, aos compostos induzidos. Adicionalmente estudou-se a biologia de W. analis. Foram coletados, por meio do processo de aeração, voláteis emitidos por C. nucifera sob os seguintes tratamentos: 1 planta sadia; 2 planta com dano mecânico e 3 planta sob herbivoria de lagartas de B. sophorae. Os voláteis coletados foram analisados quimicamente por cromatografia gasosa acoplada a espectrometria de massas (CG-EM). A resposta comportamental do parasitoide aos compostos induzidos pela herbivoria das lagartas foi testada em um olfatômetro em Y e seu ciclo de vida foi registrado a partir de 79 larvas que emergiram de 28 pupas de B. sophorae. Os compostos nonanal, decanal e duas cetonas, geranil acetona e 6-metil-5-hepten-2-ona, foram identificados nas amostras de voláteis emitidos por C. nucifera 48h após a aplicação dos três tratamentos. O homoterpeno (E)-4-8-dimetil-1,3,7-nonatrieno (DMNT) foi encontrado somente nas amostras de voláteis emitidos por C. nucifera sob herbivoria de B. sophorae e com dano mecânico. A contribuição do DMNT foi maior nas amostras de planta sob herbivoria de lagartas de B. sophorae do que nas amostras de planta com dano mecânico. Os adultos de W. analis não foram atraídos pelos extratos obtidos da aeração de plantas sob herbivoria de lagartas de B. sophorae. A taxa de emergência dos adultos de W. analis foi de aproximadamente 73%. Foi possível verificar dimorfismo sexual alar por meio de morfometria geométrica (p<0,0001). A análise morfológica dos adultos de W. analis constatou a existência de uma característica no abdômen dos machos.

Nos moluscos sem concha ou naqueles em que a mesma estÃÂ presente na forma vestigial, como cefalÃÂpedes e gastrÃÂpodes opistobrÃÂnquios, a falta dessa proteÃÂÃÂo externa conduziu ÃÂ evoluÃÂÃÂo de mecanismos de defesa dominados pela secreÃÂÃÂo ou incorporaÃÂÃÂo de substÃÂncias quÃÂmicas bioativas. ProteÃÂnas sintetizadas de novo sÃÂo bons exemplos dessas molÃÂculas, tendo sido encontradas nas tintas de vÃÂrias espÃÂcies de lesmas do mar, particularmente do gÃÂnero Aplysia. Muitas jÃÂ revelaram pertencer a famÃÂlias de proteÃÂnas com atividade oxidÃÂstica de L-aminoÃÂcidos (LAAOs), grupo do qual fazem parte tambÃÂm proteÃÂnas bioativas encontradas nos venenos de serpentes. A caracterizaÃÂÃÂo, portanto, das atividades biolÃÂgicas e do perfil bioquÃÂmico dessas proteÃÂnas ÃÂ muito ÃÂtil para que possamos entender como se dÃÂo os mecanismos defensivos desses animais e quÃÂo difundidos esses sÃÂo, alÃÂm de proporcionar subsÃÂdios para sua aplicaÃÂÃÂo biomedicinal. Esse estudo visou a elucidaÃÂÃÂo dos mecanismos de aÃÂÃÂo da dactilomelina-P, proteÃÂna antibacteriana purificada da tinta de Aplysia dactylomela, e a comparaÃÂÃÂo da composiÃÂÃÂo protÃÂica e das atividades antimicrobianas das tintas liberadas por dois gastrÃÂpodes, A. dactylomela e Bursatella leachii, e por um cefalÃÂpode, Octopus sp.. O estudo revelou que a dactilomelina-P ÃÂ uma L-aminoÃÂcido oxidase capaz de oxidar L-lisina e L-arginina, com maior afinidade por L- arginina, com Km de 0,22 +- 0,16 mM/L para a L-lys e de 0,015 +- 0,01 Mm/L para a L-arg. Demonstrou tambÃÂm que sua atividade antibacteriana ÃÂ medida por esta propriedade, tendo o perÃÂxido de hidrogÃÂnio, gerado na oxidaÃÂÃÂo enzimÃÂticca, grande aprtipaÃÂÃÂo na inibiÃÂÃÂo bacteriana. A proteÃÂna se comporta de maneira bacteriostÃÂtica quando em meio nÃÂo suplementado com L-lisina e L-angilina, sendo bactericida na presenÃÂa destes. AlÃÂm disso, a atividade antibacteriana mostrou ser dependente da concentraÃÂÃÂo de aminoÃÂcidos disponibilizados para oxidaÃÂÃÂo pela proteÃÂna. A atividade Staphylococcus aureus deve ocorrer por meio de mecanismos que nÃÂo induzam danoso na morfologia celular, uma vez que nÃÂo foi observada qualquer alteraÃÂÃÂo morfolÃÂgica por microscopia de forÃÂa atÃÂmica. JÃÂ a anÃÂlise das trÃÂs tintas pro PAGE-SDS revelou a presenÃÂa, em todas elas, de bandas protÃÂicas de cerca de 60 kDa, alÃÂm de bandas de peso moleculares mais baixos. Por Western blot pode-se observar a existÃÂncia de identidade imunolÃÂgica entre proteinas das trÃÂs tintas, visto que anticorpos policlonais produzidos contra a dactilomelina-P reconheceram proteÃÂna(s) de cerca de 60 kDa na tinta de B. leachii e de cerca de 30 kDa na tinta de Octopus sp. Dentre as trÃÂs tintas, somente a tinta de A. dactylomela apresentou atividades antibacterianas e antifÃÂngica / In shelled molluscs or those in which it is present as vestigial as cephalopods and gastropods opistobrÃÂnquios, the lack of external protection led to the evolution of defense mechanisms dominated by the secretion or incorporation of bioactive chemicals. Proteins synthesized again are good examples of these molecules, were found in paints of various species of sea slugs, particularly the genus Aplysia. Many have already revealed belong to protein families with oxidÃÂstica activity of L-amino acids (LAAOs), a group which comprises also bioactive proteins found in snake venoms. The characterization therefore biological activities and biochemical profile of these proteins is very useful for us to understand how to give the defense mechanisms of animals and how widespread they are, in addition to providing subsidies to its application biomedicinal. This study aimed to elucidate the mechanisms of action of P-dactilomelina, antibacterial protein purified from Aplysia ink dactylomela, and comparison of protein composition and antimicrobial activities of paint released by two gastropods, A. dactylomela and Bursatella leachii, and a cephalopod, Octopus sp .. The study revealed that dactilomelina-P is an L-amino acid oxidase capable of oxidizing L-lysine and L-arginine, with a higher affinity for L-arginine, with a Km of 0.22 + - 0.16 mM / L for L -lys and 0.015 + - 0.01 mM / L L-arg. It also demonstrated that its antibacterial activity is measured by this property, with the hydrogen peroxide generated in the oxidation enzimÃÂticca, great aprtipaÃÂÃÂo in bacterial inhibition. The protein behaves in a non-bacteriostatic when supplemented with L-lysine and L-angilina, being in the presence of bactericidal. In addition, the antibacterial activity was shown to be dependent on the concentration of amino acids available for oxidation by the protein. Staphylococcus aureus activity must occur through mechanisms that do not induce damage to cell morphology, since we did not observe any morphological change by atomic force microscopy. The analysis of the three pro paint SDS-PAGE revealed the presence in them all, protein bands of about 60 kDa, and bands of lower molecular weight. For Western blot can observe the existence of immunologic identity between proteins of the three dyes, since polyclonal antibodies produced against P-dactilomelina recognized protein (s) of about 60 kDa in ink B. leachii and approximately 30 kDa in ink Octopus sp. Among the three dyes, only the ink of A. dactylomela showed antibacterial and antifungal activities

<p dir="ltr">Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful and versatile technique that is useful for addressing a wide range of complex analytical challenges. In this work, mass spectrometry-based assays were developed to address issues relating to environmental contamination and for detecting analytes of interest to the defense industry. Chapter one is an overview of the history of mass spectrometry, the fundamental operation of a mass spectrometer, as well as, advancements in chromatographic separation and ionization methods. Chapter two focuses on the development of an assay that uses blow flies as environmental sensors of chemical weapon release. In that work, a liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed to detect chemical warfare agent simulants and chemical warfare agent hydrolysis products in flies exposed to the chemicals in controlled feeding experiments. The work in chapter three describes the development of a surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy assay coupled to paper spray mass spectrometry for a more fieldable and environmentally friendly approach to detect organophosphorus compounds. Chapter four describes the development of a paper spray mass spectrometry assay for the detection and semi-quantitation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in whole blood without sample cleanup or chromatographic separations. This method would be useful in detecting high levels of these carcinogenic compounds in individuals highly exposed via their occupations. The final chapter (chapter five) returns to using blow flies as environmental sensors, but this time to detect insensitive munitions in the environment. The work focuses on the development of two different liquid chromatography mass spectrometry methods for the detection of insensitive munitions, which are less shock sensitive explosives, and their transformation products in the environment. Controlled feeding experiments were also performed where flies were exposed to contaminated soil and water sources to show the feasibility of this method in a more realistic scenario. The projects detailed herein show the extensive range with which mass spectrometry can be used for the detection of harmful chemistries of environmental concern.</p>

The inhabitants of marine benthos must combat the ecological pressure caused by predation, competition and fouling through a series of mechanisms, one of which is chemical defense. This type of protection is particularly extended among sessile and/or sluggish organisms, such as sponges, soft corals or ascidians. The strategies to prevent predation are related to bad taste rather than to toxicity. Moreover, they must be considered along with nutritional quality, since the more nutritious the prey, higher quantities or more potent repellents are needed to gain protection. The production of defensive secondary metabolites is energetically expensive. For this reason, the Optimal Defense Theory (ODT) predicts that defenses must be allocated in the most valuable or more exposed structures or body-regions. In Antarctic communities, the main predators are asteroids, and defensive agents are hence expected to accumulate in superficial layers of potential prey. But dense populations of amphipods, which associate opportunistically with biosubtrata, obtaining both refuge and direct or indirect sources of nutrition, are also very influencing on these bottoms. It has been reported that chemical defenses are very common in Antarctic organisms, in accordance with our results. However, the research effort has not been the same for all the groups, and there are still many aspects to learn on the chemical ecology, like the identification of the implicated products, their mode of functioning or their localization and origin. This PhD has focused on three relevant groups of the Antarctic benthos, quite understudied: hexactinellid sponges, soft corals and colonial ascidians. Two influencing sympatric predators were selected, the sea star Odontaster validus, which is a known model predator, and for the first time, the amphipod Cheirimedon femoratus, used to perform feeding experiments for the detection of repellent chemical defenses. We designed a new protocol which provided numerous methodological profits, as well as a remarkable discriminatory potential for unpalatable activities. In a survey with 31 species of Antarctic organisms, a larger incidence of unpalatable activities was recorded towards C. femoratus than against the asteroid, especially in algae and sponges, in which amphipods may particularly influence defenses distribution for representing potential host-preys. Some organisms instead, seemed to exploit alternative defensive strategies. The ecological success of the three studied groups is probably related to the presence of chemical defenses. In hexactinellid sponges these are weak, yet compensated with a low energetic content, and derive from primary metabolites, such as steroid derivates. Some glucosphingolipids instead, could have a chemotaxonomical value as chemical markers in rossellid sponges. In soft corals, chemical protection is obtained from products originating from both, primary (wax esters) and secondary metabolism (sesquiterpenoids), which seem to cooperate in an additive way, and are likely exuded within the coral mucus in living specimens. The use of primary metabolites for defense represents an effective energy saving strategy. In colonial ascidians, defensive secondary metabolites of terpenoid and alkaloid nature with potent bioactivities predominate, and in some species these are accumulated in internal tissues. Presumably, this distribution is related to the production of chemically defended lavae. Some bioactive secondary metabolites isolated from various sources, like the meridianins, may suggest a broad evolutionary retention, or a symbiotic origin. Regarding bacterial antifouling, ascidians exhibited poor activity, while some soft corals did display inhibition. With this work we provide the identification, localization, and possible origin of several defensive agents in three relevant groups of Antarctic benthic invertebrates. / Los habitantes del bentos antártico combaten la depredación, la competencia y el recubrimiento desarrollando mecanismos como la defensa química. Ésta estrategia está particularmente extendida entre organismos sésiles y organismos de cuerpo blando. Las defensas repelentes contra depredadores han de considerarse junto con la calidad nutricional, pues las dietas muy energéticas enmascaran la repelencia. La producción de metabolitos secundarios defensivos es costosa. Por ello, la Teoría de Defensa Optimizada (ODT) prevé que han de localizarse en las regiones corporales más valiosas o expuestas. En las comunidades antárticas los principales depredadores son las estrellas de mar y se postula la concentración de defensas en áreas superficiales en las presas. Pero también influyen las poblaciones de anfípodos asociados a los biosustratos, obteniendo en ellos refugio y fuente de alimentación. Esta tesis se centra en las defensas químicas de tres grupos relevantes del bentos antártico relativamente poco estudiados: esponjas hexactinélidas, corales blandos y ascidias coloniales. Se seleccionaron dos depredadores simpátricos, la estrella Odontaster validus y, por primera vez, fue utilizado el anfípodo Cheirimedon femoratus. Diseñamos un nuevo protocolo con numerosas ventajas metodológicas además de un gran potencial discriminatorio, y observamos que en 31 especies hubo mayor repelencia hacia el anfípodo que hacia la estrella, sobretodo en algas y esponjas, que podrían representar potenciales huéspedes-presa. A partir de aquí estudiamos muestras de los tres grupos seleccionados. En hexactinélidas, las defensas químicas son más débiles y derivadas del metabolismo primario, pero compensadas con un bajo valor nutricional. Algunos glucoesfingolípidos, podrían tener valor quimiotaxonómico como marcadores de la familia Rossellidae. En corales blandos existen metabolitos de defensa primarios y secundarios operando sinérgicamente, y probablemente forman parte del mucus superficial. En ascidias coloniales, los metabolitos defensivos son secundarios y muy potentes; además, en algunas especies éstos tienden a acumularse en tejidos internos, presumiblemente para producir larvas protegidas químicamente. Las ascidias mostraron poca actividad antibacteriana, pero algunos corales exhibieron respuestas inhibitorias. Esta Tesis proporciona la estructura, distribución y posible origen de los metabolitos responsables de las actividades defensivas en tres grupos relevantes de invertebrados antárticos.

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No. of bitstreams: 1 vivianedasilvavaiss.pdf: 3626163 bytes, checksum: 3a5c810252b870e4922ae7564819b604 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-01-27 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Os hidróxidos lamelares, dentre os quais se incluem os compostos tipo brucita e os hidróxidos duplos lamelares (HDL), apresentam inúmeras aplicações devido às suas propriedades, tais como: alta estabilidade térmica, capacidade de troca iônica, porosidade e elevada área específica, eletroquímicas, fotoquímicas e outras. A capacidade de adsorção e troca iônica apresentada por estes compostos faz com que estes materiais sejam amplamente utilizados na remoção de espécies aniônicas e contaminantes. Assim, por exemplo, tais materiais podem ser usados na remoção do excesso de fluoreto de água potável, pois fluoreto em excesso pode causar fluorose esquelética ou dental, e na desativação de agentes neurotóxicos, organofosforados que atacam o sistema nervoso. O presente trabalho, apresenta um estudo detalhado dos mecanismos de reação de H2O, HF e sarin com hidróxidos lamelares. Para tanto, foram utilizados cálculos ab initio baseados na Teoria do Funcional da Densidade com condições de contorno e o método CI-NEB (Climbing Image-Nudging Elastic Band) para calcular o caminho de reação e a barreira energética de cada reação envolvida nos processos. A reação de HF foi baseada num mecanismo proposto composto por quatro reações elementares: a adsorção de HF sobre a superfície dos hidróxidos, a dissociação do HF adsorvido, a dessorção da molécula de água formada na reação de dissociação e a formação do composto M(OH)2−xFx. Os resultados mostram que a formação do composto M(OH)2−xFx é espontânea. Este resultado está de acordo com trabalhos experimentais, que prevêem como estável o composto formado pela substituição de OH- por F- em hidróxidos lamelares. Foram analisadas duas propostas para a formação de hidroxila sobre a superfície de hidróxidos lamelares. Na primeira uma hidroxila da própria lamela do hidróxido migra para a superfície e na segunda uma molécula de água se dissocia sobre a superfície do hidróxido, formando uma molécula de água e hidroxila adsorvidas na superfície, sendo esta última proposta mais favorável segundo os cálculos realizados. Os trabalhos anteriores foram etapas necessárias para o objetivo central da tese: estudar a desativação do agente neurotóxico sarin. No processo de desativação do sarin foram estudados intermediários formados pela dissociação e quimissorção do agente sobre a superfície da brucita. Com base nos resultados dos três processos estudados pôde-se verificar que a reação de desativação do agente sarin utilizando a brucita é termodinamicamente mais estável do que a reação de hidrólise. Além disso, verificou-se que a água pode participar do processo de desativação como um catalisador. Tal estudo está no âmbito do Programa Pró-Defesa do ministério da Defesa em conjunto com a CAPES. / Layered hydroxides, including brucite-like compounds and layered double hydroxides (LDHs), present numerous applications due to their properties such as: high thermal stability, ion exchange capacity, porosity and high surface area, electrochemistry, photochemistry and others. The capacity of adsorption and ion exchange presented by these materials make them to be widely used in the removal of anionic species and contaminants. Thus, for example, such materials can be used in the removal of excess fluoride from drinking water, because fluoride in excess can cause dental or skeletal fluorosis, and degradation of nerve agents, like organophosphates that attack the nervous system. This work presents a detailed study of the reactions H2O, HF and sarin with layered hydroxides. Therefore, were used ab initio calculations based on Density Functional Theory (DFT) with periodic boundary conditions and the CI-NEB method (Climbing Image – nudging Elastic band) to calculate the reaction path and the energetic barrier for each reaction involved in the process. The reaction of HF was based on a proposed mechanism consisting of four elementary steps: the adsorption of HF on the surface of hydroxides, the dissociation of adsorbed HF, the desorption of water molecule formed in the dissociation reaction and the formation of the compound M(OH)2−xFx. The results show that the formation of the compound M(OH)2−xFx is spontaneous. This result agrees with experimental works, that predicts as stable the compound formed by replacing OH- by F- in layered hydroxides. Two proposals were analyzed for the formation of hydroxyl on the surface of layered hydroxides. In the first proposal a hydroxyl of the hydroxide lamella migrates to the surface and in the second proposal a water molecule dissociates on the surface of the hydroxides, forming a water molecule and hydroxyl adsorbed on the surface; the latter proposal is more favorable according to the calculations performed. The previous studies were necessary steps for the central goal of the thesis: to study the deactivation of the nerve agent sarin. In the deactivation process of the nerve agent sarin intermediates formed by dissociation and chemisorption of the agent on the surface of brucite were studied. Based on the results of the three cases studied it could be checked that the deactivation reaction of the agent sarin using brucite is thermodynamically more stable than the hydrolysis reaction. Moreover, it appears that water can participate in the deactivation process as a catalyst. This study has happened into the ambit of the Pro-Defense program of the Defense Menistry in conjunction with the CAPES.