Memoria para optar al Titulo Profesional de Médico Veterinario / El circovirus porcino tipo 2 (PCV2, del Inglés Porcine Circovirus Type 2) pertenece a la familia circoviridae, la cual está constituida por virus pequeños y sin envoltura, con un genoma de ADN circular de hebra simple. El genoma de PCV2 codifica en forma divergente para dos marcos de lectura abiertos (ORFs, del Inglés Open Reading Frames) involucrados en la formación de la cápside (cap) y el complejo de replicación viral. Este virus es considerado el agente etiológico principal de una enfermedad emergente en nuestro país, denominada Síndrome del Desmedro Multisistémico Postdestete (PMWS, del Inglés Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Sindrome) en cerdos, el cual se caracteriza por generar una inmunosupresión severa, con pérdida progresiva de peso y deterioro general de la condición corpórea, lo que acompañado por una serie de infecciones concomitantes, llevan a la muerte prematura del animal, con las consecuentes pérdidas económicas en los países productores. Si bien es un síndrome ampliamente distribuido en el mundo y muy común en todos los planteles productores de cerdos, la presencia de PCV2 en Chile no ha sido del todo demostrada. El objetivo de esta memoria de título fue detectar la presencia de circovirus porcino tipo 2 en Chile y caracterizar su genotipo. La detección del virus se realizó por medio de PCR desde muestras de linfonodos inguinales superficiales de cerdos con signología PMWS, pertenecientes a 3 planteles porcinos de la zona central de Chile, analizándose al menos 5 casos por plantel. El gen orf2 del virus fue detectado en el 100 % de las muestras analizadas, tanto por PCR simple como por PCR semi-cuantitativo. Por otra parte, con el fin de realizar una caracterización genotípica del virus, el gen orf2 fue sometido a un análisis de la longitud de los polimorfismos de los fragmentos de restricción (RFLP, del inglés restriction fragment length polymorphism), no encontrándose diversidad genética, intrae inter-planteles, entre las muestras analizadas, las cuales presentaron un patrón RFLP igual a un clon europeo usado como control. 5 Posteriormente se realizó la secuenciación nucleotídica en ambos sentidos, tras el clonamiento, de cuatro secuencias aisladas de los diferentes predios. Las secuencias presentaron un 94% de identidad nucleotídica entre si y su análisis filogenético las agrupó en un clado específico, junto con aislados suecos y algunos aislados chinos. Además, este análisis junto a revisión bibliográfica reciente, permitió diferenciar las secuencias en dos subgrupos o subgenotipos del virus, 1 y 2. De esta manera fue posible concluir que el circovirus porcino tipo 2 esta presente en nuestro país y que las cepas analizadas corresponden al subgrupo 1, presentando una estrecha relación con genotipos de origen Europeo / Bicentenario Banco Mundial-Conicyt PSD2; Iniciación en Investigación de la Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Desarrollo de la Universidad de Chile VID I07/15-2 y el Fondo de Investigación Veterinaria FIV 2007 de la Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias de la Universidad de Chile

Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Médico Veterinario / La producción porcina en Chile aporta un importante porcentaje al total de toneladas de carne producidas anualmente en el país. Es por esta razón que se debe resguardar la calidad sanitaria de los cerdos y evitar enfermedades como la circovirosis la cual ha mostrado generar un gran impacto en la industria porcina mundial. El agente causal de la enfermedad es Circovirus porcino tipo II (PCV-2), el cual genera un estado de inmunosupresión severo en los animales y consecuentemente, la manifestación de patologías secundarias que terminan por afectar el crecimiento del cerdo. Además de mejorar la gestión y las prácticas de manejo (mejor higiene, menor hacinamiento y mejor ventilación), la disponibilidad de vacunas contra PCV-2 ha representado una opción inmunológica eficaz para paliar el impacto de estas enfermedades. Existen diferentes vacunas contra PCV-2, muchas de ellas probadas en otros países, pero con pocos referentes de su acción y eficacia en Chile. Además, la presencia de variantes genéticas de PCV-2 en el país, sugiere la importancia de evaluar la eficacia de formulaciones importadas actualmente usadas en la industria porcina nacional, con el fin de obtener información de relevancia para mejorar los protocolos de prevención y control de la enfermedad. En el presente estudio y con la finalidad de evaluar el efecto de una vacuna comercial contra PCV-2 en Chile, se midió la carga viral de dicho virus en cerdos de un plantel nacional de producción porcina bajo un programa de vacunación contra PCV-2. Para esto, se implementó y estandarizó un ensayo de PCR tiempo real usando SYBR® Green y se utilizó una cohorte de 30 animales (15 vacunados vs 15 no vacunados) muestreados a distintos periodos de tiempo: 30, 50, 70, 90, 110 y 130 días, como grupo de estudio. Los resultados obtenidos permitieron concluir que en los primeros 90 días de la medición, la carga viral se mantiene en un nivel basal no existiendo diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre el grupo control no vacunado y aquellos animales en los cuales si se administró el producto. Posteriormente, se evidenció una significativa alza de carga viral en ambos grupos en el día 110 del estudio, sin embargo en los animales vacunados, este aumento en el parámetro es ligeramente más tardío (día 130 del muestreo). Por esto se dedujo que la vacuna tiene un factor protectivo sobre los animales al retardar el peak de carga viral en los cerdos vacunados / Financiamiento: Proyecto Fondecyt 11110135

O circovírus suíno tipo 2 (PCV2) é um vírus pequeno, sem envelope e com genoma DNA circular de fita simples pertencente ao gênero Circovirus da família Circoviridae. O PCV2 está associado a uma síndrome multissistémica, atualmente denominada de porcine circovirus–associated disease (PCVAD) que acomete suínos e causa sérios prejuízos econômicos. Esta doença caracteriza-se por apresentar uma variedade de manifestações clínicas, como diminuição do ganho de peso, distúrbios respiratórios e entéricos, desordens reprodutivas e alta mortalidade. Além disso, PCVAD está fortemente associada a manifestações de dermatite, comprometimento renal e depleção linfóide. Apesar das grandes perdas econômicas e das inúmeras manifestações clínicas, a patogenia e o mecanismo de infectividade do PCV2 ainda não estão totalmente esclarecidos. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a patogenia do PCV2 em suínos naturalmente infectados e em cultivo celular através da caracterização dos efeitos da infecção no sistema vascular. Primeiramente, foi realizada uma investigação para determinar os parâmetros hemostáticos de suínos naturalmente infectados por PCV2. Além disso, avaliou-se, in vitro, as alterações nas propriedades hemostáticas em células endoteliais infectadas pelo PCV2. Nossos resultados, mostram que suínos naturalmente infectados pelo PCV2 apresentam um estado protrombótico, demonstrado pela diminuição do tempo de coagulação e dos níveis de fibrinogênio, ativação e consumo plaquetário, aumento na atividade de trombina no plasma, e presença de vasculite nos capilares sanguíneos. In vitro, foi demonstrado que as células endoteliais infectadas pelo PCV2 apresentam um fenótipo ativado, caracterizado pelo aumento na atividade procoagulante na superfície celular. Além disso, foi observado que o tratamento com trombina exógena nos cultivos celulares infectados por PCV2 induz um aumento na carga viral. A partir disso, evidencia-se a participação do endotélio na infecção pelo PCV2, e a capacidade do vírus em modular a hemostasia. O conjunto destes dados permite um melhor entendimento dos fenômenos que ocorrem no hospedeiro durante a infecção pelo PCV2, especialmente no sistema vascular, permitindo uma maior compreensão dos mecanismos patogênicos da PCVAD e fornecendo novos conhecimentos dos processos envolvendo a interação PCV2-suíno. / Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is a small non-enveloped virus with a single-strand DNA genome, which belongs to the Circovirus genus of the Circoviridae family. PCV2 is related to a multisystemic syndrome nowadays called porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD), which affects pigs and causes considerable economic losses. The disease is characterized by a variety of clinical manifestations, such as decrease in weight gain, respiratory and enteric disturbance, reproductive disorders and high mortality rates. Apart from this, PCVAD is also associated to dermatitis, renal failure and lymphoid depletion. In spite of the large economic losses and of the numerous clinical manifestations, the pathogenesis and infection mechanism of PCV2 have not been fully clarified. The aim of this study is to evaluate the PCV2 pathogenesis in naturally infected pigs and in cell culture, by characterizing the effects of the infection in the vascular system. Firstly, an investigation aimed at determining the hemostatic parameters in naturally infected pigs was conducted. Also, an in vitro evaluation of the hemostatic properties of PCV2-infected endothelial cells was performed. Our results show that pigs naturally infected with PCV2 presented a prothrombotic state manifested as decreased coagulation time and fibrinogen levels, reduced platelet activation and consumption, increased thrombin plasma activity, and as the occurrence of vasculitis in capillary vessels. In vitro, it was demonstrated that endothelial cells infected with PCV2 presented an activated phenotype characterized by a higher procoagulant activity on the cell surface. Apart from this, the treatment with exogenous thrombin in PCV2 infected cell cultures induces an increase in viral load. These findings reveal the role played by the endothelium in the PCV2 infection and the capacity of the virus to modulate hemostasis. Taken together, these results afford to better understand the phenomena taking place in the host during PCV2 infection, namely in the vascular system, shedding new light on the pathogenic mechanisms of PCVAD and on the processes involved in the swine-PCV2 interaction.

Beak and Feather Disease Virus (BFDV) is a circovirus which causes ill-thrift, feather loss and immunosuppression leading to secondary infections and eventually death in psittacine birds. The development of standardised reagents for the detection and characterisation of BFDV infections and for the production of protective vaccines has been difficult as no cell culture system has yet been found to grow the virus successfully in vitro. However, the development of consistent and effective diagnostic tests and vaccines is now more practical through the application of nucleic acid-based detection methods and recombinant technology. A quantitative real-time PCR assay for the detection of BFDV DNA was developed, using primers designed to amplify a conserved 81 bp fragment of ORFV1 and SYTO9, a fluorescent intercalating dye, with assays run on a Corbett RotorGene 3000. A synthetic oligonucleotide was used to establish standard curves for the quantitation of viral load in both blood and feather preparations. The assay was very sensitive, with a detection limit of 50 copies/ìL. The assay was developed using BFDV-positive DNA extracts from the feathers of 10 different species of birds and validated with blood and feather samples from corellas vaccinated with an experimental BFDV vaccine, then challenged with live virus. Viral DNA was reliably detected in the blood of all control (non-vaccinated) birds and in some vaccinated birds. Contamination of the environment with the feather dander of BFDV-infected birds meant that HA feather preparations were unreliable for the detection and quantitation of viral excretion. Nonetheless, the assay should prove to be a useful and sensitive test for the detection of viral DNA in a range of samples in future investigations. A recombinant BFDV capsid protein was also produced and a specific monoclonal antibody developed against it. The behaviour of the protein in haemagglutination (HA) assays and the behaviour of the monoclonal antibody in western blotting, immunohistochemistry (IHC), ELISA and haemagglutination-inhibition (HI) assays were characterised. The protein had the ability to agglutinate galah erythrocytes as per the wild-type virus and this agglutination was successfully inhibited by antibodies to wild-type BFDV from naturally immune psittacine birds. Furthermore, the protein self-assembled into virus-like particles as determined by electron microscopy. The antibody was specific for both the recombinant BFDV capsid protein and the whole virus and had similar optimal titres when used in western blotting and IHC. The antibody also had HI activity and detected BFDV virus from 3 genera of psittacine birds, including the recently described cockatiel BFDV isolate. A novel “blocking” (or “competitive”) ELISA (bELISA) for the detection of anti- BFDV antibodies in psittacine sera (Ab-bELISA) was also developed and validated with 166 samples from eastern long-billed corellas vaccinated with the recombinant capsid protein and challenged with live virus. The bELISA was found to be both sensitive and specific and correlated strongly with the HI test, thus it should have wide application for the serodiagnosis of BFDV. A survey of cockatiels (n=88) housed at commercial aviaries was conducted to investigate whether BFDV infection occurs in cockatiels. All birds were diagnosed as being virus-free by PCR and HA and had no detectable antibody titre by HI assay. In addition to this, the genomes of two BFDV isolates obtained from diseased cockatiel feathers were sequenced and cross-reactivity assays performed using virus eluted from these feathers and sera from naturally immune psittacine birds. Serological cross-reactivity results and phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequences indicated that the cockatiel virus isolates were serologically and genetically different to other BFDV isolates. This is the first report of an antigenically distinct BFDV in psittacine birds. Since the Ab-bELISA has a lower limit of detection than the HI assay, it was used to repeat the cockatiel sero-survey. No antibodies were detectable in any of the cockatiels tested and thus questions about the real prevalence of BFDV infection in cockatiels and the possible existence of a novel BFDV serotype adapted to cockatiels remain unanswered. The successful control of PBFD in both pet and wild birds depends on the development of vaccines that incite a strong specific immune response and can be efficiently produced in large quantities. Recombinant BFDV capsid proteins have recently been considered as candidate vaccines against BFDV and recombinant techniques allow the development of other candidate vaccines, including DNA vaccines. In order to examine the potential of DNA vaccination as a strategy for the prevention and control of BFDV, two DNA vaccines, based on the nucleotide sequence encoding the capsid protein of BFDV, were developed using the mammalian expression vector pVAX1. The vaccine constructs encoding both the full length and NLS-truncated capsid protein resulted in protein expression both in vitro and in vivo. Protein was detected in COS-7 cells transfected with the constructs with an indirect immunocytochemistry assay using the monoclonal antibody described in Chapter 5. Protein was present in the nucleus of cells transfected with the vaccine encoding the full-length nucleotide sequence and in the cytoplasm of cells transfected with the vaccine encoding the NLS-truncated sequence as expected. Both DNA vaccine constructs induced detectable levels of anti-BFDV antibodies in vaccinated birds, determined using the Ab-bELISA described in Chapter 5. Thus, DNA vaccines similar to those presented here may have application in the prevention and control of BFDV and some options for the further development of these vaccines into effective methods for the control of BFDV are discussed.

La production porcine joue un rôle très important dans l'économie et l'alimentation de nombreux pays. En 2010, environ 1 billion de porcs ont été produits à une échelle mondiale. Cette intensification de l'élevage rend de plus en plus difficile le maintien d'une biosécurité optimale et démontre l'importance de développer des vaccins efficaces contre les pathogènes porcins. Les vaccins conventionnels sont à base d'organismes entiers vivants atténués ou inactivés par un processus chimique. Toutefois, un regain de la virulence pour les premiers types de vaccins, résultant alors en des maladies au lieu de la protection espérée, ou encore un processus inapproprié d'inactivation et une réponse immunitaire faible pour les deuxièmes sont d'autant d'inconvénients importants auxquels les intervenants en santé animale et les éleveurs sont confrontés. Le développement de nouvelles stratégies vaccinales est donc nécessaire afin de contrecarrer les inconvénients liés à l'utilisation des vaccins conventionnels. Parmi les virus affectant les troupeaux porcins, le virus du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin (« Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus », PRRSV) demeure celui qui représente le plus gros défi. En effet, bien que le PRRSV soit bien caractérisé et que des outils de contrôle aient été mis en place, les infections par le PRRSV sont répandues dans le monde entier et les éclosions sont récurrentes. Les vaccins disponibles actuellement sur le marché ne permettent pas d'assurer une protection optimale et sécuritaire. Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous avons proposé une alternative aux procédures vaccinales utilisées jusqu'à maintenant. Cette procédure, basée sur l'induction d'une immunité mucosale et systémique, est totalement innovatrice pour le contrôle du PRRSV. Pour cela, des vaccins sous-unitaires à base d'adénovirus recombinant (rAdVs) réplicatifs mais non disséminatifs ont été générés afin d'exprimer des protéines d'intérêt du PRRSV. Ces protéines étaient la protéine de matrice M et la glycoprotéine d'enveloppe GP5 qui est porteuse des épitopes neutralisants majeures. Différentes mutations ont été également introduites dans la GP5 (GP5m) afin d'augmenter la réponse immunitaire induite. Une stratégie de vaccination combinatoire rAdV/protéine recombinante GP5 (rGP5) a aussi été testée. Nos différentes stratégies de vaccinations ont permis de générer une réponse immunitaire spécifique chez le porc, la stratégie combinatoire rAdV/rGP5 permettant d'induire la meilleure réponse en anticorps. Cependant, suite à une infection expérimentale, les animaux ayant reçu une vaccination à base de rAdVs co-exprimant les protéines M et GP5m sont ceux chez lesquels la virémie était la plus faible. La deuxième partie de cette thèse a consisté à développer des vaccins bivalents ciblant trois pathogènes impliqués dans une entité clinique appelée complexe respiratoire porcin. Ces trois pathogènes étaient le PRRSV, le circovirus porcin de type 2 (PCV2) associé principalement au syndrome de dépérissement post-sevrage (SDPS) et Mycoplasma (M.) hyopneumoniae qui est l'agent de la pneumonie enzootique. Des vaccins à base de rAdVs non réplicatifs ont été développés afin d'exprimer des protéines d'intérêt de chacun des pathogènes. Ces protéines sont la GP5 du PRRSV, la protéine de capside (Cap) du PCV2 et la portion C-terminale de la protéine d'adhésion P97 (P97c) de M. hyopneumoniae. L'immunisation de souris par voie intramusculaire a permis de démontrer la capacité de ces différents vaccins bivalents à générer une réponse en anticorps spécifiques à chacun des antigènes. De plus, la P97c, lorsque fusionnée avec les protéines Cap ou GP5, a permis d'augmenter la réponse en anticorps dirigés contre ces protéines virales suggérant un effet immunopotentiateur de la P97c. En conclusion, ces travaux ont permis de démontrer l'efficacité d'une nouvelle stratégie vaccinale pour lutter contre le PRRSV et l'immunogénicité de vaccins bivalents contre des pathogènes d'importance chez le porc. De plus, ils suggèrent que la protéine P97c de M. hyopneumoniae pourrait avoir un effet adjuvant. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Virus du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin, Circovirus porcin, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Adénovirus recombinant, Protéines M et GP5, Cap, P97c, Réponse immune, Porc, Souris.

O circovírus suíno tipo 2 (PCV2) é um vírus pequeno, sem envelope e com genoma DNA circular de fita simples pertencente ao gênero Circovirus da família Circoviridae. O PCV2 está associado a uma síndrome multissistémica, atualmente denominada de porcine circovirus–associated disease (PCVAD) que acomete suínos e causa sérios prejuízos econômicos. Esta doença caracteriza-se por apresentar uma variedade de manifestações clínicas, como diminuição do ganho de peso, distúrbios respiratórios e entéricos, desordens reprodutivas e alta mortalidade. Além disso, PCVAD está fortemente associada a manifestações de dermatite, comprometimento renal e depleção linfóide. Apesar das grandes perdas econômicas e das inúmeras manifestações clínicas, a patogenia e o mecanismo de infectividade do PCV2 ainda não estão totalmente esclarecidos. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a patogenia do PCV2 em suínos naturalmente infectados e em cultivo celular através da caracterização dos efeitos da infecção no sistema vascular. Primeiramente, foi realizada uma investigação para determinar os parâmetros hemostáticos de suínos naturalmente infectados por PCV2. Além disso, avaliou-se, in vitro, as alterações nas propriedades hemostáticas em células endoteliais infectadas pelo PCV2. Nossos resultados, mostram que suínos naturalmente infectados pelo PCV2 apresentam um estado protrombótico, demonstrado pela diminuição do tempo de coagulação e dos níveis de fibrinogênio, ativação e consumo plaquetário, aumento na atividade de trombina no plasma, e presença de vasculite nos capilares sanguíneos. In vitro, foi demonstrado que as células endoteliais infectadas pelo PCV2 apresentam um fenótipo ativado, caracterizado pelo aumento na atividade procoagulante na superfície celular. Além disso, foi observado que o tratamento com trombina exógena nos cultivos celulares infectados por PCV2 induz um aumento na carga viral. A partir disso, evidencia-se a participação do endotélio na infecção pelo PCV2, e a capacidade do vírus em modular a hemostasia. O conjunto destes dados permite um melhor entendimento dos fenômenos que ocorrem no hospedeiro durante a infecção pelo PCV2, especialmente no sistema vascular, permitindo uma maior compreensão dos mecanismos patogênicos da PCVAD e fornecendo novos conhecimentos dos processos envolvendo a interação PCV2-suíno. / Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is a small non-enveloped virus with a single-strand DNA genome, which belongs to the Circovirus genus of the Circoviridae family. PCV2 is related to a multisystemic syndrome nowadays called porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD), which affects pigs and causes considerable economic losses. The disease is characterized by a variety of clinical manifestations, such as decrease in weight gain, respiratory and enteric disturbance, reproductive disorders and high mortality rates. Apart from this, PCVAD is also associated to dermatitis, renal failure and lymphoid depletion. In spite of the large economic losses and of the numerous clinical manifestations, the pathogenesis and infection mechanism of PCV2 have not been fully clarified. The aim of this study is to evaluate the PCV2 pathogenesis in naturally infected pigs and in cell culture, by characterizing the effects of the infection in the vascular system. Firstly, an investigation aimed at determining the hemostatic parameters in naturally infected pigs was conducted. Also, an in vitro evaluation of the hemostatic properties of PCV2-infected endothelial cells was performed. Our results show that pigs naturally infected with PCV2 presented a prothrombotic state manifested as decreased coagulation time and fibrinogen levels, reduced platelet activation and consumption, increased thrombin plasma activity, and as the occurrence of vasculitis in capillary vessels. In vitro, it was demonstrated that endothelial cells infected with PCV2 presented an activated phenotype characterized by a higher procoagulant activity on the cell surface. Apart from this, the treatment with exogenous thrombin in PCV2 infected cell cultures induces an increase in viral load. These findings reveal the role played by the endothelium in the PCV2 infection and the capacity of the virus to modulate hemostasis. Taken together, these results afford to better understand the phenomena taking place in the host during PCV2 infection, namely in the vascular system, shedding new light on the pathogenic mechanisms of PCVAD and on the processes involved in the swine-PCV2 interaction.

Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Médico Veterinario / El uso de micropartículas (MPs) de polímeros naturales ha sido descrito como una innovadora técnica de formulación de adyuvantes para diversas vacunas. Para esta memoria de título se utilizó quitosano (Qo) como polímero natural el cual se funcionalizó con grupos azufrados para preparar quitosano tiolado (QT) y sulfonado (QS). Con estos quitosanos se formularon micropartículas de quitosano tioladas (MPQT) y de quitosano sulfonadas (MPQS) cargadas con el antígeno del circovirus porcino tipo II (PCV2). Las micropartículas de quitosano (MPQ) formuladas y cargadas fueron obtenidas mediante técnicas de gelificación iónica y secado por atomización. Se determinó la presencia de grupos azufrados en las MPQ mediante Espectroscopía infrarroja transformada de Fourier (FTIR) y se caracterizaron en cuanto a morfología, tamaño y cantidad de carga mediante microscopía electrónica de barrido o Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) y potencial Zeta. Por otro lado, además se evaluaron parámetros de Eficiencia de encapsulación (EE) y Rendimientos de la producción (R), se determinó también la presencia de antígeno mediante Dot Blot y se realizaron estudios in vitro de mucoadhesividad. Los resultados obtenidos por FTIR indicaron la aparición de nuevos picos de absorción que coinciden con los grupos -SH, con enlaces C-O-S y para grupos S=O. Mediante SEM se observó la formación de MPs de Qo con formas más o menos esféricas, bordes definidos, superficie lisa a rugosa, y tamaños que variaron entre 1 y 50 µm. Mediante potencial Zeta las MPQC y MPQT presentaron carga neta positiva mientras que las MPQS presentaron carga neta negativa. Todas las MPs poseen valores de EE superiores a 80%, R sobre 30% para MPs 1X y son positivas a la presencia de antígeno Cap de PCV2 al análisis por Dot Blot. Finalmente, los ensayos de mucoadhesividad mostraron que las MPQT y MPQS presentaron mejor mucoadhesividad respecto a MPQC. En conclusión, se logró preparar y caracterizar Qo funcionalizado con grupos tiol y sulfonato, formular tres tipos de MPs de Qo cargadas con antígeno Cap de PCV2 y caracterizadas en su totalidad. / The use of microparticles (MPs) of natural polymers has been described as an innovative technique of formulating adjuvants for various vaccines. For this title memory chitosan (Qo) was used as the natural polymer which was functionalized with sulfur groups to prepare thiolated (QT) and sulfonated chitosan (QS). With these chitosans, thiolated chitosan microparticles (MPQT) and sulphonated chitosan microparticles (MPQS) loaded with the porcine circovirus type II (PCV2) antigen were formulated. The formulated and loaded chitosan microparticles (MPQ) were obtained by ionic gelation and spray drying techniques. It was determined the presence of sulfur groups in the MPQ by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and these MPs were characterized in terms of morphology, size and amount of charge by means of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Zeta potential, besides evaluating such parameters such as encapsulation efficiency (EE) and yields of production (R), the presence of antigen was also evaluated by Dot Blot and finally in vitro mucoadhesivity studies were performed. The results obtained by FTIR indicate the occurrence of new absorption peaks that coincide with the groups -SH, with C-O-S bonds and for S = O groups. By SEM the formation of MPs of Qo with more or less spherical shapes, defined edges, smooth to rough surface, and sizes varying between 1 and 50 μm are observed. By means of zeta potential the MPQC and MPQT presented positive net load while the MPQS presented negative net load. All MPs have EE values higher than 80%, R about 30% for 1X MPs and are positive for the presence of PCV2 Cap antigen at Dot Blot analysis. Finally, mucoadhesivity assays show that MPQT and MPQS had better mucoadhesivity with respect to MPQC. In conclusion, it is possible to prepare and characterize Qo functionalized with thiol and sulfonate groups, to formulate three types of Qo MPs loaded with PCV2 Cap antigen and to characterize them in their entirety. / Financiamiento: Proyecto Fondef It13120021 & Fondecyt 1140660

O Circovirus suíno tipo 2 (PCV2) é um vírus ubíquo que tem sido associado a um número de síndromes em suínos. Entre elas, a Síndrome Multissistêmica do Definhamento dos Suínos (SMDS) tornou-se uma das principais causas de perdas econômicas na suinocultura nacional. No entanto, existe incerteza se o PCV2 é, de fato, o único agente responsável por esse quadro, essencialmente porque a administração isolada do vírus a animais suscetíveis não tem sido capaz de reproduzir experimentalmente a síndrome. Em vista disso, um número de outros agentes infecciosos (e não infecciosos) tem sido examinados e sua potencial participação no desenvolvimento da SMDS tem sido pesquisada. No presente estudo foram realizados experimentos visando determinar se outro(s) agente(s) com genoma de DNA circular poderia(m) desempenhar algum papel no desenvolvimento da SMDS. Para tanto, a técnica denominada “amplificação por círculo rolante com múltiplos primers” (ACRMP) foi empregada. A ACRMP é baseada na atividade da DNA polimerase do fago phi29, uma enzima capaz de sintetizar novas moléculas de DNA a partir de um molde de DNA circular. Numa segunda etapa, o DNA amplificado é clivado com enzimas de restrição, ocasionando a linearização de grande quantidade de cópias do DNA alvo original. Como a ACRMP é realizada com primers aleatórios, nenhum conhecimento prévio da seqüência de nucleotídeos alvo é necessário. Portanto, pode-se teoricamente amplificar DNA circular de qualquer microorganismo, o que a torna ideal para o propósito do presente estudo. O DNA extraído de soros de 67 suínos com sinais clínicos de SMDS, assim como de 63 suínos saudáveis, foram submetidos à ACRMP. O principal achado deste estudo foi que o genoma de um (ou mais) anelovírus foi(ram) detectado(s) em 88,9% (56/63) dos suínos saudáveis, ao passo que o(s) mesmo(s) agente(s) somente foi(ram) detectado(s) em 16,4% (11/67) dos soros de suínos com sinais clínicos da SMDS. Alguns fragmentos de DNA potencialmente correspondentes a fragmentos de genomas virais foram seqüenciados, revelando que pelo menos um deles corresponde a uma seqüência de anelovírus suíno ainda não descrita. No entanto, outro genoma correspondente a um anelovírus foi encontrado na mesma amostra, sugerindo que mais de um vírus pode estar presente em amostras de soro. Estes resultados demonstraram que os anelovírus, de grande variabilidade genética, são significativamente mais prevalentes em suínos clinicamente saudáveis do que em suínos com SMDS. / Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is an ubiquitous virus that has been associated to a number of syndromes in swine. Among these, Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS) has become a major cause of economic losses in swine worldwide. However, there is uncertainty as to whether PCV2 is in fact the sole agent responsible for the disease, essentially because the disease has not been experimentally reproduced when PCV2 is inoculated onto susceptible animals. In view of that, a number of other infectious (and non infectious) agents have been examined and their potential role in PMWS searched for. This study was carried out to determine whether any other agent(s) with circular DNA genome might be playing some role in PMWS. In order to achieve that, a technique called “randomly primed rolling circle amplification” (RPRCA) was employed. RPRCA is based on the activity of bacteriophage phi29 DNA polymerase, an enzyme that synthesizes new DNA molecules starting from a circularized DNA template. In a second phase, the amplified DNA is cleaved with restriction enzymes, so giving rise to large amounts of linearized copies of the original target DNA. As RPRCA is performed with random priming, no previous knowledge of the target nucleotide sequence is necessary. Therefore, it is theoretically possible to amplify circular DNA of any microorganism, thus making it ideal for the purpose of the present study. DNA extracted from sera of 67 pigs with clinical signs of PMWS as well as from 63 healthy pigs was submitted to RPRCA. The major finding of this study was that the genome of one (or more) anelloviruses was detected in 88,9% (56/63) of the healthy pigs, whereas the same agent was only detected in 16,4% (11/67) of pigs with clinical signs of PMWS. Some of the DNA fragments corresponding to the putative virus genomes were sequenced and revealed at least one non-previously described anellovirus sequence. However, other anellovirus could be found on the same sample, suggesting that more than one genome are present in samples of serum. These results demonstrate that anelovírus, of great genetic variability, were significantly more prevalent in healthy pigs than in pigs with PMWS.

Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Médico Veterinario. / El circovirus porcino tipo 2 (PCV2, del Inglés Porcine Circovirus Type 2) pertenece a la familia circoviridae, la cual está constituida por virus pequeños y sin envoltura, con un genoma de ADN circular de hebra simple. El genoma de PCV2 codifica en forma divergente para dos marcos de lectura abiertos (ORFs, del Inglés Open Reading Frames) involucrados en la formación de la cápside (cap) y el complejo de replicación viral. Este virus es considerado el agente etiológico principal de una enfermedad emergente en nuestro país, denominada Síndrome del Desmedro Multisistémico Postdestete (PMWS, del Inglés Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Sindrome) en cerdos, el cual se caracteriza por generar una inmunosupresión severa, con pérdida progresiva de peso y deterioro general de la condición corpórea, lo que acompañado por una serie de infecciones concomitantes, llevan a la muerte prematura del animal, con las consecuentes pérdidas económicas en los países productores. Si bien es un síndrome ampliamente distribuido en el mundo y muy común en todos los planteles productores de cerdos, la presencia de PCV2 en Chile no ha sido del todo demostrada. El objetivo de esta memoria de título fue detectar la presencia de circovirus porcino tipo 2 en Chile y caracterizar su genotipo. La detección del virus se realizó por medio de PCR desde muestras de linfonodos inguinales superficiales de cerdos con signología PMWS, pertenecientes a 3 planteles porcinos de la zona central de Chile, analizándose al menos 5 casos por plantel. El gen orf2 del virus fue detectado en el 100 % de las muestras analizadas, tanto por PCR simple como por PCR semi-cuantitativo. Por otra parte, con el fin de realizar una caracterización genotípica del virus, el gen orf2 fue sometido a un análisis de la longitud de los polimorfismos de los fragmentos de restricción (RFLP, del inglés restriction fragment length polymorphism), no encontrándose diversidad genética, intrae inter-planteles, entre las muestras analizadas, las cuales presentaron un patrón RFLP igual a un clon europeo usado como control. Posteriormente se realizó la secuenciación nucleotídica en ambos sentidos, tras el clonamiento, de cuatro secuencias aisladas de los diferentes predios. Las secuencias presentaron un 94% de identidad nucleotídica entre si y su análisis filogenético las agrupó en un clado específico, junto con aislados suecos y algunos aislados chinos. Además, este análisis junto a revisión bibliográfica reciente, permitió diferenciar las secuencias en dos subgrupos o subgenotipos del virus, 1 y 2. De esta manera fue posible concluir que el circovirus porcino tipo 2 esta presente en nuestro país y que las cepas analizadas corresponden al subgrupo 1, presentando una estrecha relación con genotipos de origen Europeo. / Porcine Circovirus pig type 2 belong to the family circoviridae, constituted by small virus without envelope, with a simple circular strand DNA genome, which codifies in divergent form for two open reading frames (ORFs) involved in the capsid formation (Cap) and the viral replication complex. This virus is considered the mayor the etiologic agent of an emergent disease in our country, denominated Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome, PMWS, in pigs, which is characterized to generate a severe immunosupression, with a progressive weight loss and general decline in the fitness condition, which is accompanied by a series of concomitant infections, with the premature death of the animal, and the consequent economic losses in the pig-producing countries. Although it is a syndrome wide world distributed and very common in all the pig-producing establishments, the presence of PCV2 in Chile has not absolutely been demonstrated. The goal of this thesis was to detect the presence of porcine circovirus type 2 in Chile and to characterize its genotype. The detection of the virus was performed by PCR from lymph nodes samples of PMWS-pigs, bellowing to 3 pig- producing establishments from the central zone of Chile, analyzing 5 cases per establishment at least. The orf2 gene virus was detected in 100% of the analyzed samples, by simplex PCR and by semi-quantitative PCR. On the other hand, in order to perform the virus genotypic characterization, the orf2 gene amplified was analyzed by RFLP, not founding genetic diversity among the analyzed samples intra- and inter-establishments; which presented the same RFLP pattern than european isolated clone used as ingroup. The nucleotide sequenciation, after cloning, was performed in both strand in four isolated sequences from different pig-producing establishment. The sequences presented a 94% of nucleotidic identity each other. The phylogenetic analysis clustered them in specific clade, near to some swedish and chinese isolated. This analysis, together to recent bibliographical revision, allowed to differentiate the sequences in two sub-groups, 1 and 2. Taken together these results shows that porcine circovirus type 2 is present in our country and that the analyzed isolated correspond to sub-group 1, presenting a near relation with european isolated. / Trabajo financiado por los proyectos: Bicentenario Banco Mundial-Conicyt PSD2; Iniciación en Investigación de la Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Desarrollo de la Universidad de Chile VID I07/15-2 y el Fondo de Investigación Veterinaria FIV 2007 de la Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias de la Universidad de Chile.

O circovírus suíno tipo 2 (PCV2) é um vírus pequeno, sem envelope e com genoma DNA circular de fita simples pertencente ao gênero Circovirus da família Circoviridae. O PCV2 está associado a uma síndrome multissistémica, atualmente denominada de porcine circovirus–associated disease (PCVAD) que acomete suínos e causa sérios prejuízos econômicos. Esta doença caracteriza-se por apresentar uma variedade de manifestações clínicas, como diminuição do ganho de peso, distúrbios respiratórios e entéricos, desordens reprodutivas e alta mortalidade. Além disso, PCVAD está fortemente associada a manifestações de dermatite, comprometimento renal e depleção linfóide. Apesar das grandes perdas econômicas e das inúmeras manifestações clínicas, a patogenia e o mecanismo de infectividade do PCV2 ainda não estão totalmente esclarecidos. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a patogenia do PCV2 em suínos naturalmente infectados e em cultivo celular através da caracterização dos efeitos da infecção no sistema vascular. Primeiramente, foi realizada uma investigação para determinar os parâmetros hemostáticos de suínos naturalmente infectados por PCV2. Além disso, avaliou-se, in vitro, as alterações nas propriedades hemostáticas em células endoteliais infectadas pelo PCV2. Nossos resultados, mostram que suínos naturalmente infectados pelo PCV2 apresentam um estado protrombótico, demonstrado pela diminuição do tempo de coagulação e dos níveis de fibrinogênio, ativação e consumo plaquetário, aumento na atividade de trombina no plasma, e presença de vasculite nos capilares sanguíneos. In vitro, foi demonstrado que as células endoteliais infectadas pelo PCV2 apresentam um fenótipo ativado, caracterizado pelo aumento na atividade procoagulante na superfície celular. Além disso, foi observado que o tratamento com trombina exógena nos cultivos celulares infectados por PCV2 induz um aumento na carga viral. A partir disso, evidencia-se a participação do endotélio na infecção pelo PCV2, e a capacidade do vírus em modular a hemostasia. O conjunto destes dados permite um melhor entendimento dos fenômenos que ocorrem no hospedeiro durante a infecção pelo PCV2, especialmente no sistema vascular, permitindo uma maior compreensão dos mecanismos patogênicos da PCVAD e fornecendo novos conhecimentos dos processos envolvendo a interação PCV2-suíno. / Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is a small non-enveloped virus with a single-strand DNA genome, which belongs to the Circovirus genus of the Circoviridae family. PCV2 is related to a multisystemic syndrome nowadays called porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD), which affects pigs and causes considerable economic losses. The disease is characterized by a variety of clinical manifestations, such as decrease in weight gain, respiratory and enteric disturbance, reproductive disorders and high mortality rates. Apart from this, PCVAD is also associated to dermatitis, renal failure and lymphoid depletion. In spite of the large economic losses and of the numerous clinical manifestations, the pathogenesis and infection mechanism of PCV2 have not been fully clarified. The aim of this study is to evaluate the PCV2 pathogenesis in naturally infected pigs and in cell culture, by characterizing the effects of the infection in the vascular system. Firstly, an investigation aimed at determining the hemostatic parameters in naturally infected pigs was conducted. Also, an in vitro evaluation of the hemostatic properties of PCV2-infected endothelial cells was performed. Our results show that pigs naturally infected with PCV2 presented a prothrombotic state manifested as decreased coagulation time and fibrinogen levels, reduced platelet activation and consumption, increased thrombin plasma activity, and as the occurrence of vasculitis in capillary vessels. In vitro, it was demonstrated that endothelial cells infected with PCV2 presented an activated phenotype characterized by a higher procoagulant activity on the cell surface. Apart from this, the treatment with exogenous thrombin in PCV2 infected cell cultures induces an increase in viral load. These findings reveal the role played by the endothelium in the PCV2 infection and the capacity of the virus to modulate hemostasis. Taken together, these results afford to better understand the phenomena taking place in the host during PCV2 infection, namely in the vascular system, shedding new light on the pathogenic mechanisms of PCVAD and on the processes involved in the swine-PCV2 interaction.