A presente dissertação tem por objetivo analisar o desenvolvimento da proposta fleckiana de uma teoria comparativa do conhecimento, seu estatuto epistemológico, bem como o diagnóstico de algumas de suas dificuldades teóricas. Defenderemos o caráter potencialmente científico de sua teoria e indicaremos que a incomensurabilidade entre estilos de pensamento constitui o problema mais imediato para sua efetivação. Nesse ínterim, sintetizaremos as principais diretrizes metodológicas esboçadas em sua teoria, entendida como um programa de pesquisa aberto, e indicaremos possíveis desdobramentos futuros. Esta dissertação terá início, em sua Introdução, com uma sucinta análise das principais fases de recepção da obra de Fleck, tendo em vista a compreensão de suas tradições de leitura e do significado atual de seus escritos. No Capítulo I, reconstituiremos o quadro conceitual da teoria comparativa de Ludwik Fleck a partir da análise de suas principais linhas e dimensões de desenvolvimento: médico-imunológica, sociológica, de crítica ao positivismo lógico e histórica. O Capítulo II será dedicado à análise dos processos comunicativos de sua teoria tanto ao nível diacrônico como ao nível sincrônico, bem como do fenômeno da incomensurabilidade. Estabeleceremos paralelos sobre a manifestação desse fenômeno com as formulações de Thomas Kuhn e Paul Feyerabend. No Capítulo III, abordaremos a tese do relacionismo cognitivo defendido por Fleck, indicando que sua teoria comparativa do conhecimento não possui um estatuto epistemológico privilegiado, sendo, portanto, um saber também relacional. Diante disso, defenderemos seu caráter científico, em conformidade, em linhas gerais, com as demais ciências naturais. Por fim, em nossas Considerações finais indicaremos, a partir das diretrizes lançadas pelo filósofo, algumas das possíveis linhas metodológicas que o programa da teoria comparativa deve seguir diante do problema da incomensurabilidade e da necessidade de um desenvolvimento metodológico mais preciso. / This dissertation aims to analyze the development of Fleck\'s proposal of a comparative theory of knowledge, its epistemological status and the diagnosis of some of its theoretical difficulties. We will defend the potentially scientific status of its theory and indicate that the incommensurability between thinking styles constitutes the most immediate problem for its effectiveness. Meanwhile, we intend to synthesize the main methodological guidelines outlined in his theory, understood as an open research program, and indicate possible future developments. This dissertation will start in its Introduction with a brief analysis of the main stages of reception of Fleck\'s work, so as to understand its traditions of readings and the current meaning of his writings. In Chapter I, we will reconstitute the conceptual framework of Fleck\'s comparative theory from the analysis of its main lines and dimensions of development: medical and immunological, sociological, as well as his criticism of historical and logical positivisms. Chapter II is devoted to the analysis of his theory of communicative processes at both the diachronic and synchronous level, as well as the phenomenon of incommensurability. We will establish parallels with Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend\'s formulations of this phenomenon. In Chapter III, we discuss the thesis of cognitive relationalism defended by Fleck, indicating that his comparative theory of knowledge does not have a privileged epistemological status, being, by its turn, also a relational knowledge. In the face of it, we will defend its scientific character, in accordance, in general, with the other natural sciences. Finally, in our final considerations we indicate, from guidelines released by the philosopher, some of the possible methodological lines that the program of comparative theory must follow regarding the problem of incommensurability and the need for a more precise methodological development.

A presente dissertação tem por objetivo analisar o desenvolvimento da proposta fleckiana de uma teoria comparativa do conhecimento, seu estatuto epistemológico, bem como o diagnóstico de algumas de suas dificuldades teóricas. Defenderemos o caráter potencialmente científico de sua teoria e indicaremos que a incomensurabilidade entre estilos de pensamento constitui o problema mais imediato para sua efetivação. Nesse ínterim, sintetizaremos as principais diretrizes metodológicas esboçadas em sua teoria, entendida como um programa de pesquisa aberto, e indicaremos possíveis desdobramentos futuros. Esta dissertação terá início, em sua Introdução, com uma sucinta análise das principais fases de recepção da obra de Fleck, tendo em vista a compreensão de suas tradições de leitura e do significado atual de seus escritos. No Capítulo I, reconstituiremos o quadro conceitual da teoria comparativa de Ludwik Fleck a partir da análise de suas principais linhas e dimensões de desenvolvimento: médico-imunológica, sociológica, de crítica ao positivismo lógico e histórica. O Capítulo II será dedicado à análise dos processos comunicativos de sua teoria tanto ao nível diacrônico como ao nível sincrônico, bem como do fenômeno da incomensurabilidade. Estabeleceremos paralelos sobre a manifestação desse fenômeno com as formulações de Thomas Kuhn e Paul Feyerabend. No Capítulo III, abordaremos a tese do relacionismo cognitivo defendido por Fleck, indicando que sua teoria comparativa do conhecimento não possui um estatuto epistemológico privilegiado, sendo, portanto, um saber também relacional. Diante disso, defenderemos seu caráter científico, em conformidade, em linhas gerais, com as demais ciências naturais. Por fim, em nossas Considerações finais indicaremos, a partir das diretrizes lançadas pelo filósofo, algumas das possíveis linhas metodológicas que o programa da teoria comparativa deve seguir diante do problema da incomensurabilidade e da necessidade de um desenvolvimento metodológico mais preciso. / This dissertation aims to analyze the development of Fleck\'s proposal of a comparative theory of knowledge, its epistemological status and the diagnosis of some of its theoretical difficulties. We will defend the potentially scientific status of its theory and indicate that the incommensurability between thinking styles constitutes the most immediate problem for its effectiveness. Meanwhile, we intend to synthesize the main methodological guidelines outlined in his theory, understood as an open research program, and indicate possible future developments. This dissertation will start in its Introduction with a brief analysis of the main stages of reception of Fleck\'s work, so as to understand its traditions of readings and the current meaning of his writings. In Chapter I, we will reconstitute the conceptual framework of Fleck\'s comparative theory from the analysis of its main lines and dimensions of development: medical and immunological, sociological, as well as his criticism of historical and logical positivisms. Chapter II is devoted to the analysis of his theory of communicative processes at both the diachronic and synchronous level, as well as the phenomenon of incommensurability. We will establish parallels with Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend\'s formulations of this phenomenon. In Chapter III, we discuss the thesis of cognitive relationalism defended by Fleck, indicating that his comparative theory of knowledge does not have a privileged epistemological status, being, by its turn, also a relational knowledge. In the face of it, we will defend its scientific character, in accordance, in general, with the other natural sciences. Finally, in our final considerations we indicate, from guidelines released by the philosopher, some of the possible methodological lines that the program of comparative theory must follow regarding the problem of incommensurability and the need for a more precise methodological development.

In the Islamic world, the term Jihad bears intricate meaning, and its rightful interpretation has occupied many scholars and Muslims across the globe. For some, it relates to the personal struggle that one may have to deal with on a regular basis. For others, the term operates on the basis of a willingness to fight. While the latter interpretation seems to be shared by extremist terrorists of organisations such as ISIS and Al Qaeda, the majority of Muslims have an entirely different interpretation of jihad. This essay wishes to delve deeper into this intricate term in order to come closer to an understanding of Jihad. This is done by conducting a qualitative and comparative analysis of three magazines of propaganda: the Ahmadiyya Community, the Islamic State and Al Qaeda respectively. The results of the study showed that the Ahmadiyya Community claim that a vital aspect of jihad is “jihad-of-the-pen”, a concept which aims to educate other people on the peaceful nature of Islam. Because of the wrongful interpretation of Jihad by extremist organisations, the Ahmadiyya Community take to the pen in order to battle these misinterpretations while also wanting to show that Islam is a peaceful religion. Furthermore, they claim that this wrongful interpretation affects the way ordinary law-abiding Muslim citizens are being viewed upon. Moreover, the findings also showed that ISIS and Al Qaeda interpret jihad as being the “jihad-of-the-sword”, whereby it is considered to be the sixth pillar. While ISIS use the concept of jihad to justify its fighting of the disbelievers, including Muslims who deal with ‘Crusader’ Western democracies, Al Qaeda aims their jihad towards the United States, whom they feel are the root to everything terror. The essay concludes with a the notion that research on this topic should focus more on peaceful jihad, the kind of personal and inner struggle that is being advocated by the Ahmadiyya communities. Literature, such as Understanding Jihad, Field of Blood, and The Secret History of Al Qaeda, has all too much tended to the violent-nature of jihad and left the peaceful, inner struggle out of the discussion. More research can be conducted on this topic to further paint the picture of peaceful struggle, which is a struggle that is felt for the absolute majority of Muslims throughout this world.

This thesis examines the extent to which Ibn Khaldun can legitimately be considered a founding father of sociology. To pursue this research, Khaldun's theoretical framework will be compared with four Western scholars: Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Giambattista Vico, and Ludwig Gumplowicz. This paper begins with an Introduction (Chapter I), followed by a general overview of Khaldun's work (Chapter II). Next, Khaldun's work is compared to that of Auguste Comte (Chapter III), Emile Durkheim (Chapter IV), Ludwig Gumplowicz (Chapter V) and Giambattista Vico (Chapter VI). In each of these chapters, Khaldun is compared and contrasted to the other social theorist, illustrating their similarities and considering their differences. Finally, in Chapter VII, I put forth conclusions that consider the extent to which Khaldun can validly be considered a founding father of sociology.

Denna studies inledning ger en övergripande bild av att svenska ungdomar generellt skattar sin hälsa som hög, däremot skattas den psykosociala hälsan lägre vilken innefattas av att vara nöjd med sig själv. Att vara nöjd med sig själv och sin kropp omfattas av kroppsbildsuppfattningen. Sociala medier tar allt mer tid i anspråk och används i större utsträckning som ett kommunikationsmedel. Levnadsvanor, miljö och det tidiga livets villkor har en betydelse för individens hälsa. Denna studies syfte var att undersöka ungdomars kroppsbildsuppfattning och användande av sociala medier samt undersöka relationen mellan dem. Metod: En kvantitativ tvärsnittsstudie utfördes. Enkäter användes som datainsamlingsmetod bland skånska elever i åk 1-3 på gymnasiet, där 249 elever besvarade enkäten. Resultatet visade att 33 procent av flickor hade högre kroppsuppfattning än pojkar (14%) och att 38 procent av pojkarna hade lägre kroppsuppfattning än flickorna (18%) (p=0,001). Flickor använder sociala medier i större utsträckning än pojkar. Sättet flickor och pojkar använde sociala medier på skiljde sig åt. Flickor hade fler olika roller på sociala medier än pojkar, samt pojkar spelade mer onlinspel än flickor. Konklusion: Eftersom pojkarna i denna studie hade lägre kroppsbildsuppfattning och spelade mer onlinespel än flickorna är det utifrån ett genus och jämställdhetsperspektiv lämpligt att studera pojkars kroppsbildsuppfattning i relation till onlinespelande. Därför bör ytterligare forskning med inriktning på pojkars kroppsbildsuppfattning bedrivas utifrån både en kvalitativ och kvantitativ metodaspekt, med ändamål att försöka förstå vilka faktorer som ligger till grund för deras kroppsbildsuppfattning. / The study's introduction is given as an overall picture of the fact that Swedish youth generally estimate their health as high but the psychosocial health is estimated to be lower, which includes being satisfied with themselves. Being content with yourself and your body is covered by the body image perception. Social media takes more time and it's used to a greater extent as a communication medium. Living habits, the environment and the conditions of early life have a bearing on the individual's health.The aim of this study was to investigate the body image of young people and the use of social media and to investigate the relationship between them. Method: A quantitative cross-sectional study was performed. The survey was used as a data collection method among Scanian students in grades 1-3 in high school, where 249 students answered questionnaires. The result showed that 33 percent of girls had a higher body image than boys (14 percent) and that 38 percent of boys had a lower body image than girls (18 percent) (p = 0.001). The way girls and boys used social media differs. Girls use social media to a greater extent than boys. The way girls and boys used social media differed. Girls had more different roles on social media than boys, and boys played more online games than girls. Conclusion: Since the boys in this study had lower body image perception and played more online games than girls, it is appropriate from a gender and gender perspective to study boys' body image perception in relation to online gaming. Therefore, further research with a focus on boys' body image should be conducted on the basis of both a qualitative and quantitative method aspect, with the aim of trying to understand which factors underlie their body image perception.

This thesis highlights the sociopolitics of English as a dominant/colonial language by focusing on the linkage between language, power, and race. Grounded in critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism research methodology, this research examines the inextricable relationship between language, power, and race. With this in mind, this thesis argues that language, specifically English, is not a neutral tool of communication but a highly contentious issue that is deeply embedded in sociopolitical ideologies and practices. The contexts of Japan and Trinidad and Tobago are used to illustrate how colonialism continues to impact English language policy, practice, and perceptions. In sum, this research aims to bridge the gap between critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism studies in a way that (1) highlights the complexity of language politics, (2) explores ideological assumptions inherent in the discourse of the "native" language, and (3) underscores the overlooked ubiquity of race.

This thesis highlights the sociopolitics of English as a dominant/colonial language by focusing on the linkage between language, power, and race. Grounded in critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism research methodology, this research examines the inextricable relationship between language, power, and race. With this in mind, this thesis argues that language, specifically English, is not a neutral tool of communication but a highly contentious issue that is deeply embedded in sociopolitical ideologies and practices. The contexts of Japan and Trinidad and Tobago are used to illustrate how colonialism continues to impact English language policy, practice, and perceptions. In sum, this research aims to bridge the gap between critical language theory, comparative education theory, and anti-racism studies in a way that (1) highlights the complexity of language politics, (2) explores ideological assumptions inherent in the discourse of the "native" language, and (3) underscores the overlooked ubiquity of race.