Six experiments were conducted to examine the factors modulating the size of age differences in recollection. The research presented in the current thesis was guided by the notions of self-initiated processing and environmental support. Older and younger adults’ performance in recollection was measured by Jacoby’s (1990) process dissociation procedure (PDP); the age differences as a function of self-initiated processing demands of the task and the amount of support provided to the participants were assessed by manipulating the encoding (Experiments 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3) and retrieval (Experiments 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3) contexts. Experiments 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 examined interactions of aging and encoding contexts. Recollection under baseline conditions (i.e. visually presented words) was contrasted with recollection of items encoded under contexts that are assumed to enhance memory. The results showed differential age-related patterns of benefits from encoding conditions: Presenting pictures with words benefited older adults more than younger adults; word generation benefited both groups equally; and presenting sound effects with visual words benefited younger more than older adults. Experiments 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 investigated age-related changes in retrieval processes and their interactions with retrieval contexts. In each of the three experiments, some of the test lists were constructed so that participants had to recollect specific aspects of the encoding event to differentiate between the to-be-included and to-be-excluded items, whereas other test lists were constructed so that they only had to recollect general aspects. Older adults showed reduced levels of recollection than younger adults for the high-specificity test lists only (Experiment 3.1). Encoding manipulations improved (Experiment 3.2) or reduced (Experiment 3.3) recollection performance but the effects did not interact with test, whereas DA at retrieval (Experiment 3.3) in younger adults partly mimicked aging. In summary, the six experiments showed that older adults have greater difficulties in spontaneously carrying out distinctive and integrative processes at encoding, and in accessing specific information at retrieval compared to their younger counterparts. These age-related changes further interact with the processing demanded or afforded by the encoding and retrieval conditions.

Six experiments were conducted to examine the factors modulating the size of age differences in recollection. The research presented in the current thesis was guided by the notions of self-initiated processing and environmental support. Older and younger adults’ performance in recollection was measured by Jacoby’s (1990) process dissociation procedure (PDP); the age differences as a function of self-initiated processing demands of the task and the amount of support provided to the participants were assessed by manipulating the encoding (Experiments 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3) and retrieval (Experiments 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3) contexts. Experiments 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 examined interactions of aging and encoding contexts. Recollection under baseline conditions (i.e. visually presented words) was contrasted with recollection of items encoded under contexts that are assumed to enhance memory. The results showed differential age-related patterns of benefits from encoding conditions: Presenting pictures with words benefited older adults more than younger adults; word generation benefited both groups equally; and presenting sound effects with visual words benefited younger more than older adults. Experiments 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 investigated age-related changes in retrieval processes and their interactions with retrieval contexts. In each of the three experiments, some of the test lists were constructed so that participants had to recollect specific aspects of the encoding event to differentiate between the to-be-included and to-be-excluded items, whereas other test lists were constructed so that they only had to recollect general aspects. Older adults showed reduced levels of recollection than younger adults for the high-specificity test lists only (Experiment 3.1). Encoding manipulations improved (Experiment 3.2) or reduced (Experiment 3.3) recollection performance but the effects did not interact with test, whereas DA at retrieval (Experiment 3.3) in younger adults partly mimicked aging. In summary, the six experiments showed that older adults have greater difficulties in spontaneously carrying out distinctive and integrative processes at encoding, and in accessing specific information at retrieval compared to their younger counterparts. These age-related changes further interact with the processing demanded or afforded by the encoding and retrieval conditions.

Le SMS (Short Message Service) a favorisé la création d’une nouvelle forme d’écriture et offre la possibilité d’analyser de façon originale les processus généraux de la production écrite. L’étude de ces processus a permis de mettre en exergue le coût cognitif qu’ils représentent lors de leur mise en œuvre simultanée. Toutefois, si ces questions ont beaucoup été étudiées en production écrite conventionnelle, l’apparition de nouvelles formes d’écriture donnent l’occasion d’étudier l’orthographe de façon inédite. L’une des principales caractéristiques de l’écriture SMS (eSMS) est l’utilisation de formes orthographiques non conventionnelles (e.g., Slt pk tu menvoi ce mess ? Biz) qui peuvent sembler, au premier abord, plus simple et plus facile que celles de l’écriture conventionnelle. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est donc de démontrer l’existence d’un coût cognitif de la production des processus spécifiques de l’écriture SMS chez les novices et de leur automatisation avec l’acquisition d’une expertise. Dans le cadre d’une épreuve d’écriture de SMS, nous avons fait varier, d’une part, le degré d’expertise des participants dans la pratique du SMS et, d’autre part, l’attention qu’ils pouvaient porter à cette tâche grâce à diverses variations du paradigme expérimental de la double tâche. Les résultats des différentes études expérimentales montrent que la production des processus spécifiques de l’eSMS présente un coût cognitif, comme ceux de l’écriture conventionnelle. Ce coût est particulièrement élevé chez les utilisateurs novices, et s’observe essentiellement en fin de message. Les processus spécifiques de l’eSMS s’automatisent ensuite avec l’acquisition d’une expertise. / SMS (Short Message Servicing) encourage the emergence of new writing forms and provides the opportunity to study in an original way the general processes of written production. The study of these processes allowed the highlighting of cognitive load that they represent during their simultaneous implementation. However, if these issues have been widely studied in conventional written production, appearance over the new forms of writing provide an opportunity to study spelling in a new way. One of the main characteristics of SMS writing (eSMS) is the use of unconventional orthographic forms (e.g., Slt pk tu menvoi ce mess? Biz [Hi why r u sending me this txt? Kisses]) which may seem, at first, simpler and easier than the conventional writing. The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate a cognitive load of producing specific processes of SMS writing (eSMS) for novices and their automation with the acquisition of expertise. In the context of a writing test of SMSes, we varied on the one hand the level of expertise of the participants in the use of SMS writing and, secondly, the attention they could bring to this task through a variety of changes in the experimental dual task paradigm. The results of various experimental studies support the conclusion that the production of eSMS specific processes has a cognitive load, like those of conventional writing. This cognitive load is especially high among novice users, with what is observed mainly at the end of a message. In addition, automation of these processes can be observed with the acquisition of expertise.

L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’étudier l’évolution au cours du vieillissement des processus automatiques et contrôlés, nécessaires à une bonne adaptation cognitive quotidienne. Nous nous intéressons à l’influence de différentes variables cognitives (mémoire de travail, vitesse de traitement et vocabulaire) ainsi qu’aux préférences de routinisation sur l’expression de ce possible effet de l’âge. Des épreuves de fluidités sémantiques simples (Expérience 1) et alternées (Expérience 2 et 3) et des formats simples (Expérience 5a et 6a) et alternés (Expérience 5b et 6b) de la tâche de Hayling ont été réalisés par des adultes jeunes (18-30 ans), âgés (60-74 ans) et très âgés (75 ans et plus). Ces épreuves nous permettent d’étudier le processus automatique à travers la diffusion de l’activation en mémoire sémantique et les processus contrôlés par le biais de l’inhibition et de la flexibilité. L’activité cérébrale associée à l’exécution de fluidités simples et alternées est étudiée chez des participants âgés à l’aide de l’imagerie optique (Expérience 4). Les résultats obtenus sont en faveur d’une réduction avec l’âge de l’efficience des processus contrôlés alors que celle des processus automatiques semble conservée. Des phénomènes de compensation se mettraient en place au cours du vieillissement, s’appuyant sur les processus automatiques et les connaissances accumulées. / The aim of this thesis is to investigate the changes in automatic and controlled processes during aging which are necessary for satisfactory daily cognitive adaptation. The focus is the impact of various cognitive variables (i.e., working memory, speed of processing and vocabulary) and preferences for routines on the expression of this possible age effect. Simple (Experiment 1) and alternating fluency tasks (Experiments 2 and 3) as well as a simple (Experiments 5a and 6a) and alternating version of the Hayling task (Experiments 5b and 6b) were administered to young adults (18-30 years old), older adults (60-74 years old) and older-old adults (75 years old and over). These tasks allowed the study of automatic processes through spreading activation in semantic memory and of controlled processes through inhibition and flexibility. The cerebral activity associated with simple and alternating fluency task execution was investigated in elderly adults with near-infrared spectroscopy (Experiment 4). The results suggest a decrease with age in the efficiency of controlled processes whereas the efficiency of automatic processes seems to be preserved. Thus, compensation based on automatic processes and accumulated knowledge may appear during aging.

Denna studie undersöker hur elever upplever lärandet av engelska som andraspråk jämfört med hur lärare upplever elevers lärande. Undersökningar visar att elever har olika inlärningsstilar och preferenser för dessa. Detta betyder i så fall att elever använder olika metoder för att lära. Studien fokuserar på hur elever upplever och reflekterar kring sin inlärning och sina inlärningsmiljöer samt att de ger förslag på förbättringar som de önskar göra. Lärare ger också sina synpunkter på vad de tror fungerar bäst för elevers inlärning och vad de tror att elever anser om sina inlärningsmiljöer. Studien är explorativ och genomfördes med hjälp av enkäter, de innehöll frågor som var "open-ended". Enkäterna delades till elever och lärare i tre klasser på en högstadieskola. Resultatet av studien visar att för att lärande skall infinna sig, måste det finnas en ömsesidig förståelse för inlärningsprocessen mellan lärare och elever. Slutligen visar studien att elever har oilka preferenser när det gäller inlärningsstilar och därför bör lärare vara medvetna om dessa för att kunna facilitera elevers inlärningsprocess. / This study looks at how pupils perceive and their learning of the English language, juxtaposed to what the teachers believe about the pupils’ learning. Sometimes, it is taken for granted that the methods and the way a teacher goes about teaching pupils is the best way to go about a lesson. However, research shows that pupils tend to have a learning style preference which means that a method that works for one pupil is not necessarily the one that works for other pupils. The focus in this study is on how pupils feel about their learning and their learning environments as they give suggestions on improvements they wish to make. The teachers also discuss means they believe work best for their pupils and what they think their pupils feel about their learning environments. The study is an explorative one and was carried out through the use of questionnaires with open-ended questions. The questionnaires were distributed to pupils and their teachers in three English classes at one upper secondary school. In conclusion, it is discussed that for any learning to take place, there has to be a mutual understanding of the learning process. This study brings to light that pupils have learning preferences, therefore teachers have to be aware of these in order to facilitate the learning process.

L’objectif majeur de cette thèse a été d’appréhender les conséquences de la comparaison sociale sur l’auto-évaluation implicite et explicite en termes de prudence, les affects et les comportements à risque. Les participants ont été exposés à un standard de comparaison prudent (standard haut) ou imprudent (standard bas) en matière d’alcool. Les résultats montrent que les sujets confrontés au standard haut se perçoivent implicitement plus imprudents et ressentent plus d’anxiété que les sujets exposés au standard bas. En revanche, le standard de comparaison n’influence pas l’auto-évaluation explicite et les comportements contrôlés. Ces résultats témoignent en faveur d’une dissociation entre les processus automatiques (implicites) et contrôlés (explicites) en jeu dans la comparaison sociale. Au niveau appliqué, nos données suggèrent que dans une campagne de prévention il serait potentiellement plus efficace de mettre en scène un standard prudent plutôt que de montrer un preneur de risque. / The main goal of this PhD research was to study the consequences of social comparison on implicit and explicit self-evaluation in terms of cautiousness, on affect and on risk-taking behavior. In a series of studies, participants were exposed to a comparison standard who displayed either cautious (high standard) or reckless (low standard) drinking behavior. Results show that participants confronted with the high standard implicitly perceive themselves as more reckless and experience higher levels of anxiety than participants exposed to the low standard. On the other hand, the comparison standard does not influence explicit self-evaluation and controlled behaviors. These results indicate that there might be a dissociation between automatic (implicit) and controlled (explicit) processes involved in social comparison. On an applied level, regarding alcohol prevention campaigns, our findings suggest that it could be more effective to show a cautious standard rather than a reckless one.

L’attention est sollicitée quotidiennement et peut être définie comme l’action de se concentrer sur quelque chose. Dès le plus jeune âge nous développons cette fonction cognitive, indispensable pour nos interactions avec le monde.Dans ce travail, la compréhension du fonctionnement des processus attentionnels est abordée à travers deux questions : comment les processus attentionnels se développent chez l’enfant sain et comment sont-ils atteints chez les enfants traités pour une tumeur du cervelet ? Plus précisément, cette thèse a pour objectif l’étude de la dissociation entre des processus automatiques et contrôlés de l’attention sélective visuelle dans le développement cognitif normal d’une part, et d’autre part dans leur atteinte chez des enfants ayant été traités pour une tumeur du cervelet. En intégrant une approche comportementale et une approche en imagerie fonctionnelle afin de répondre de façon complémentaire à cet objectif, ce travail interdisciplinaire se situe au carrefour de la psychologie, de la neuropsychologie et des neurosciences cognitives.Ce manuscrit comporte deux parties. Dans l’introduction théorique, une revue de la littérature se décomposant en trois chapitres est proposée ; elle porte précisément sur le fonctionnement de l’attention, son développement et ses déficits chez des enfants traités pour une tumeur du cervelet. Dans la partie expérimentale, deux chapitres sont présentées. Le premier chapitre concerne une étude sur la maturation de l’attention chez des enfants de 7 ans à l’âge adulte à travers une approche comportementale et en imagerie fonctionnelle. Le second chapitre étudie à l’aide de cette double approche les déficits attentionnels chez les enfants ayant été traités pour une tumeur du cervelet. Les résultats de nos expériences ont montré qu’entre les processus attentionnels automatiques et contrôlés, il existait une dissociation d’une part dans leur développement à un niveau comportemental et fonctionnel, et d’autre part dans la compensation des réseaux cérébraux sous-tendant une préservation comportementale chez des enfants traités pour une tumeur du cervelet. Ces données suggèrent un fonctionnement distinct de ces processus de par leur développement normal et leur dysfonctionnement en pathologie. / Attention can be defined as the act of focusing on something. We develop this cognitive function necessary to adjust our interactions with the world since birth.The general goal of this research is to understand the functioning of attentional processes through two questions: how attentional processes are developed in healthy children and how they are altered in children treated for a cerebellar tumor. This thesis specifically aims to study the dissociation between automatic and controlled processes of visual selective attention, firstly in normal cognitive development and secondly in their impairment in children treated for a cerebellar tumor. By incorporating in parallel a behavioral approach and an approach in functional imaging, this interdisciplinary work is at the crossroads of cognitive psychology, cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neurosciences.This manuscript has two parts. The theory part is composed of three chapters: the functioning, the normal development and the deficits of attention in children treated for a cerebellar tumor. The experimental part includes two chapters. The first one concerns the attentional development in participants from seven years old to an adult age, with a behavioral approach using two experimental paradigms and an approach in functional imaging. The second chapter, with the help of this double approach, presents an alteration of attention in children treated for a posterior fossa tumor. The results showed on one side that automatic and controlled attentional processes were dissociated in their development at a behavioral and a functional level. And on the other side, the results revealed that although the automatic and controlled attentional processes are behaviorally preserved in children treated for a cerebellar tumor, they were subtended by a different modification of the functional network. Taken together these data suggest a distinct functioning of these processes in their normal development and their impairment in disease.

The present study had as an objective the analysis of the role of attention in the encoding of sentences and stories based on the working memory model and the Hebb Effect paradigm. The study tried to determine whether there were significant differences between of immediate serial recall in the presence or absence of an attentional concurrent task. The work hypothesis was that attention would act differently in the processing of sentences and stories. 40 students, 18 years or older, participated on the study. The results indicate that attention is primordial for the processing of sentences, but as far as stories go, the processing is done in a relatively automatic way, with little use of attention. The best support for long-term memory for the processing of the stories occurs in an automatic way. The study of the Hebb effect showed that learning occurred in a more efficient way with the stories. As far as the theoretical models, the data match the concept of the Episodic Buffer proposed by Baddeley (2000) and to the Embedded-Processes Model proposed by Cowan (1999). / O presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar o papel da atenção no processamento de frases à luz do conceito de Memória de Trabalho e do paradigma do Efeito Hebb. Buscouse verificar se existiam diferenças significativas entre provas de recordação imediata serial quando da presença ou não de uma tarefa concorrente atencional. A hipótese de trabalho foi que a atenção atuaria de maneira diferenciada no processamento das frases quando estas possuíam ou não relação de significado entre si. Participaram do estudo 40 estudantes, todos com idade acima de 18 anos. Os resultados apontam que a atenção é primordial ao processamento das seqüências de frases sem relação de significado entre si, mas que para aquelas com relação de significado, o processamento é feito de forma relativamente automática, com pouco uso da atenção. O maior suporte da memória de longo prazo ao processamento das seqüências de frases com relação de significado entre si ocorre de forma automática. O estudo do Efeito Hebb mostrou que o aprendizado ocorre de maneira mais eficiente nas seqüências de frases com significado. No que tange aos modelos teóricos, os dados vão de encontro ao conceito de funcionamento do buffer episódico proposto por Baddeley (2000) e ao processamento de informações proposto por Cowan (1999). / Mestre em Psicologia Aplicada

Detta arbete har genomförts vid Volvo Construction Equipment i Braås. I nuläget används konventionell spraybågssvetsning med metallpulverfylld rörtråd i produktionen. Ett alternativ som övervägs är att byta till solidtråd. Huvudsyftet med detta arbete har varit att utreda huruvida några utvalda processer med 1.2 mm solidtråd är kapabla att producera ensträngs kälsvetsar som uppfyller av Volvo CE ställda krav: - Minst 3 mm i-mått. - Teoretiskt a-mått mellan 4 och 5.5 mm. - Svetsklass VD enligt Volvo standard STD 181-0004. - Kompatibel med fogföljning via ljusbåge. - Ingen spalt mellan plåtarna tillåten. Arbetet inleddes med en litteraturstudie för att framförallt beskriva svetsparametrars inverkan på svetsens inträngningsprofil och geometri.  Ett stort antal svetsförsök utfördes med konventionell spraybåge samt de vågformsstyrda processerna Fronius PMC och Lincoln Electrics RapidArc. Försöken genomfördes i PA och i PB läge. I PB läget orienterades förbandet dels med gränsytan mellan plåtarna horisontellt och dels vertikalt. Flertalet av försöken genomfördes med svetstraktor. Kompletterande försök genomfördes med svetsrobot. Inträngning och kvalité bedömdes framförallt genom makroprov och syning, men också genom lasermätning. Vid inledande faktorförsök med RapidArc, PMC och konventionell spraybågsprocess användes trådmatningshastighet 13 och 15 m/min i kombination med svetshastighet 55 och 65 cm/min. Försöken visade att i PB läge med horisontell gränsyta kan 3 mm i-mått uppnås med trådmatningshastigheten 13 m/min och svetshastigheten 55 cm/min. Under avslutande svetsförsök med PMC i PB läge med gränsytan vertikalt vid 60 cm/min svetshastighet, pendling och 14.5-15.5 m/min trådmatningshastighet erhölls i-mått avsevärt överstigande 3 mm. Vid svetsförsök i PB läge med solidtråd uppnåddes kraven på 3 mm i-mått och mjuka fattningskanter med ökad svetshastighet jämfört med ett typiskt produktionsfall. I PA läge erhölls mindre skillnad gentemot ett produktionsfall. Genom ytterligare optimering av svetsprocesserna är det dock inte orimligt att svetshastigheterna kan ökas utan försämrade i-mått och fattningskanter. Möjlig kostnadsreducering för tillsatsmaterialet vid övergång till solidtråd är 30-50% beroende på att solidtråden är billigare än metallpulverfylld rörtråd. Ytterligare kostnadsreducering kan erhållas genom förbrukning av mindre mängd tillsatsmaterial. Vid genomförde svetsförsök har mindre mängd tillsatsmaterial tillförts jämfört med typiska produktionsfall.  Både den konventionella spraybågsprocessen och de vågformsstyrda processerna är kapabla att producera de eftersträvade svetsarna med solidtråd. Här måste dock ett ”varnade finger” höjas; vid svetsningen krävs god kontroll av elektrodvinklarna och elektrodens position relativt fogens rot, annars erhålls betydligt sämre resultat. / This thesis has been performed at Volvo Construction Equipment in Braås. Currently, conventional MAG spray transfer with metal cored wire is used in the production. The company is now considering switching from metal cored wire to solid wire. The main purpose of this thesis has been to investigate whether a few selected processes used with 1.2 mm solid wire are capable of producing single pass fillet welds that conform to the following requirements set by Volvo CE: - Minimum i-dimension 3 mm. - Theoretical throat thickness between 4 and 5.5 mm. - Weld class VD according to Volvo standard STD 181-0004. - Compatible with Through Arc Seam Tracking. - No gap between the plates is allowed. A literature study was performed primarily in order to describe the influence of weld parameters on the weld and penetration profile. A large number of weld trials were performed with conventional spray transfer and the two waveform controlled processes Fronius PMC and Lincoln Electrics RapidArc. The weld trials were performed in the weld positions PA and PB. For PB the joint root was orientated both horizontally and vertically. For the majority of trials a weld tractor was used. Complementary trials were performed by a robot. Weld testing consisted primarily of macro etch testing and visual inspection but also laser scanning. The initial trials with RapidArc, PMC and conventional spray transfer were performed with the wire feed speeds 13 and 15 m/min in combination with the travel speeds 55 and 65 cm/min. The trials showed that when using weld position PB with a horizontal joint root, 3 mm i-dimension can be achieved by using wire feed speed 13 m/min and travel speed 55 cm/min. Final trials with PMC were performed in weld position PB with a vertical joint root using wire feed speeds 14.5-15.5 m/min, a travel speed of 60 cm/min and weaving resulting in i-dimensions much greater than 3 mm being achieved. Using solid wire in weld position PB, welds with 3 mm i-dimension and good wetting of the toes were produced with increased travel speed compared to a typical production case. However, in weld position PA less difference was obtained compared to a typical production case. By further optimizing the weld processes it is not unlikely that the travel speeds can be increased while maintaining the i-dimension and good wetting of the toes. A possible cost reduction for the filler material is 30-50% because solid wire is cheaper than metal cored wire. Using less filler material will result in additional cost reductions. During performed weld trials less filler material was used compared to current production scenarios. Both the conventional spray transfer process and the waveform controlled processes are capable of producing the desired welds with solid wire. However, a cautionary tale must be told: when welding, good control of the electrode angles and position relative to the joint root is needed otherwise much worse results will be obtained.