De la construction de centrales jusqu’au traitement des déchets radioactifs, le nucléaire ne cesse de susciter les désaccords. La thèse se focalise sur le cas de la Lorraine, qui entre dans le nucléaire français dès 1978 avec la centrale de Cattenom (Moselle) et poursuit son développement avec le projet de centre de stockage de déchets radioactifs Cigéo (Meuse/Haute-Marne). Situé à l’échelle des territoires, le travail montre comment les populations essaient d’empêcher ces projets. Cette approche questionne l’opposition classique entre « pro » et « anti » nucléaires, pour observer ce qui pose problème à ceux qui décident d’entrer dans la contestation. Pour cela, la notion de désaccord montre la diversité des oppositions à Cattenom et Cigéo, qui ne sont pas toujours menées par des écologistes. Selon leur forme, les désaccords induisent une certaine perception des situations, orientent les conduites des acteurs, produisent du sens pour ceux qui y participent ou y assistent par médias interposés. Menée en sciences de l’information et de la communication, la thèse brosse les régimes de désaccord qui marquent la contestation du nucléaire en Lorraine depuis quarante ans. Celle-ci s’organise autour de deux pôles : les controverses des « citoyens-enquêteurs » et les polémiques de militants occupants le territoire. L’enquête de terrain couplée au corpus de documents médiatiques et numériques montre que les acteurs s’expriment dans des arènes qui orientent l’action et les discours. Enfin, l’évolution de la communication vers des formes narratives comme le film ou le jeu vidéo traduisent une volonté de raconter l’histoire passée et à venir de la controverse / From the building of power plants through nuclear waste management, the nuclear energy never stops to cause disagreements. The thesis focus on Lorraine’s case, which stepped into the French nuclear program since 1978 with Cattenom nuclear plant (in Moselle) and continues its development with the nuclear radioactive waste disposal Cigéo (in Meuse/Haute-Marne).From the scale of territories, the work shows how people try to impeach those projects. This approach examines the classic opposition between "pro" and "anti" nuclear people. To achieve this, the notion of disagreement the diversity of Cattenom and Cigéo protests, which aren’t always led by ecologists. Depending their form, disagreements have an impact on the perception of situations, the actor’s behaviors, and produce sens for those participating or watching through media. Done in media and communication studies, the thesis covers the disagreement schemes of forty years of nuclear protest in Lorraine. These protests are built around two poles: “citizens-investigators’” controversies and activists occupiers’ polemics. The field work associated to the collection of media and digital documents shows that actors express themselves in arenas, which impact their action and discourses. Finally, communication evolves towards narrative forms, such as video and video games. It shows that actors will to tell the controversy’s past and future

Centrada numa perspectiva discursiva - a da análise do discurso - esta pesquisa trabalha tendo como foco teórico a constituição/identidade das formações discursivas e relações interdiscursivas de caráter polêmico. Além disso, indagações como as dimensões interdisciplinares da análise do discurso e a concepção de análise do discurso político ficaram também contempladas na trajetória. Para efeito de averiguação da conformação do foco teórico, escolhemos como corpus a diversidade dos discursos escritos que se confrontaram, durante o processo de privatização da Companhia Vale do Rio Doce - CVRD - maior companhia do mundo em atividade de extração mineral. Esse processo não se deu de forma pacífica e consensual, mas sob exaustivos debates de confronto entre governo e sociedade civil. Esse confronto levou a um questionamento: o fato de o processo ter se dado sob exaustivos debates, configurou-lhe uma aparência democrática, no entanto, o discurso \"vencedor\" é aquele identificado com o discurso governamental o qual propõe e efetiva a privatização. Se houve estratégias de condução do processo, como está caracterizado o perfil do discurso \"vencedor\": persuasivo, convincente ou simplesmente hegemônico? Esse questionamento, em linhas gerais, levou aos seguintes objetivos: confrontar os argumentos verificando a força de um em relação ao outro; verificar o mecanismo de refutação e como as identidades e as imagens discursivas são construídas. A questão subjacente é buscar compreender, através de formas de produção de sentidos como os fenômenos políticos se instalam ou se constituem discursivamente numa confluência de espaços e poderes nem sempre passíveis de clareza e visibilidade. / Centred around a discursive perspective - the discourse analysis - this research has as theoretical focus the constitution/identity of the discursive formations and controversial interdiscursiviness relations. Furthermore, inquiries such as the discourse analysis interdisciplinary dimensions and the conception of the political discourse analysis were also observed. In order to verify the theoretical focus , we have chosen as corpus the written discourses diversities that confronted during Companhia Vale do Rio Doce - CVRD privatization process. CVRD is the largest mining company in the world. Its privatization process did not happen in a peaceful and consensual way, but with exhaustive confrontational debates between government and civil society. This confront led to a question: as the process has occurred with exhaustive debates, it happened to have a democratic appearance, nevertheless, the \"victorious\" discourse is the one identified with the governmental discourse, that proposes and effects the privatization. If there were strategies of how to conduct the process, how is the appearance of the persuasive \"victorious\" discourse characterized, convincing or simply hegemonic? On the whole, this question, has led to the following objectives: confront the arguments verifying the strength of one in relation to the other; verify the refutation mechanism and how the identities and discursive images are built. The underlying question is to understand, how the political phenomena are settled or if they are established discursively in a space and power confluence not always liable to clarity and visibility.

Dans la lignée de recherches précédentes en Sciences de l’Information et de la Communication, ce travail explore la question de la « transparence » dans l’évaluation du risque, en particulier dans le cadre des controverses scientifiques et des polémiques médiatiques autour des pesticides et des OGM. Face à ce principe - jamais défini et pourtant central – ce travail cherche à répondre à la question suivante : Quelles sont les limites de la mise en œuvre de la notion de « transparence » ? Dans ce cadre, on étudie précisément l'« Affaire Séralini » qui fait suite à la publication d’une étude controversée sur les OGM et les pesticides et leurs conséquences sur la santé. Dans la première partie de notre travail, nous avons cherché à analyser le passage de la transparence à la transparence numérique au regard des évolutions de la sphère publique, de la société moderne à la société postmoderne. Nous avons consacré la deuxième partie de notre travail à notre terrain d’étude à proprement parler, c’est-à-dire l’« Affaire Séralini ». En posant la question des controverses et des polémiques dans la « société du risque », nous avons pu questionner comment la « société transparente » se déploie dans une société postindustrielle confrontée aux risques. Enfin, notre dernière partie explore les injonctions paradoxales de la transparence qu’on peut observer au cours de l’« Affaire Séralini ». Au-delà des limites de l’injonction à la transparence reste-t-il une place pour la confiance et le parler-vrai dans nos sociétés du risque ? / In line with previous research in Communication Studies, this work explores the question of “transparency” in risk evaluation, especially in regard with scientific controversies and media polemics about pesticides and GMOs. Questioning a principle never defined, yet central, this study tries to answer the following question: What are the limits in the implementation of a “transparency” principle? I particularly look at the “Seralini Affair” that follows the publication of a controversial study about pesticides and GMOs’ health effects. In the first part of my research, I analyze the transition from transparency to digital transparency in the mirror of the evolution of the public sphere from modern to postmodern society. The second part of my work is exclusively dedicated to the “Seralini Affair.” While questioning the role of controversies and polemics in the “society of risk”, I wonder how the “transparent society” deploys in a postmodern society facing increasing risks. Finally, the last part of this research analyzes the paradoxical injunctions of transparency I observed in the “Seralini Affair.” Beyond these injunctions to implement more transparency, is there still room for trust and truth-speaking in our risk societies?

Nesta tese analisamos as nuances que o conceito de leste assumiu nas fontes escritas da Escandinávia e Islândia dos séculos XIII e XIV. De início, procedemos na observação de como a historiografia referente às interações entre povos da Escandinávia e do Nordeste Europeu produziu extenso debate de implicações políticas, conhecido como a Controvérsia Normanista. Neste capítulo salientamos também os impactos que o estudo do medievo teve nos tempos contemporâneos. A seguir, efetuamos uma síntese baseada na interpretação da Cultura Material sobre os movimentos escandinavos a leste no período viking, que forneceram material para os próprios historiadores e autores na Escandinávia e Islândia dos séculos XIII e XIV. Até então demonstramos que, a despeito da Controvérsia Normanista, há evidência convincente e suficiente para demonstrar que a presença escandinava no leste foi deveras significativa. Os capítulos posteriores centralizam-se na análise das fontes primárias. Dividimo-las em fontes que apresentam material cartográfico e geográfico, obras de cunho historiográficoe sagas voltadas ao entretenimento; como seleção de obras representativas de tais grandes grupos analisamos o Mappamundi islandês Gks 1812, 4to, 5v-6r., o prólogo da Edda Menor, a Heimskringla, a Gesta Danorum e a rvar-Odds Saga. A análise dessas fontes demonstrou que entre o século XIII e o XIV ocorreu na produção escrita escandinava uma bifurcação entre o conhecimento produzido com objetivos de instrução e aquele com intuitos de entretenimento. O uso do leste na primeira vertente é livresco, inserindo muito do saber acumulado do Medievo Ocidental e ressignificando o leste segundo parâmetros das terras bíblicas e dos autores clássicos. Nas fontes de intuito de entretenimento o uso do leste é também ressignificado, mas desta feita de acordo com material mais ligado à cultura e às narrativas populares, empregando o leste na materialização de temas do fantástico e da mitologia. / In this thesis we analyze the nuances assumed by the concept of east in the primary sources of Scandinavia and Iceland in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.Initially, we proceeded in the observation of how the historiography related to Northern and Eastern Europe have produced extensive debate of political implications, named the Normanist Controversy. In thischapter we have stressed also the impacts that Medieval Studies may assume in Contemporary milieu.Hereafter we build a synthesis based on Material Culture -in the archaeological sense -of the Scandinavian movements in East in the Viking Age, interactions that already had provided inspiration for authors inXIII-XIVs. At this point we have showed successfully that there is enough evidence to demonstrate the relevance of the Scandinavian presence in medieval Eastern Europe.The later chapters deal with the analysis of several kindsof primary sources. We have gathered and organized it in geographical and cartographical works, writings of historiographical nature and entertainment aimed sagas.As a selection of representative works of such large groups we studied the Icelandic Mappamundi of manuscript Gks 1812, 4to, 5v-6r, the Prologue of Edda Minor, the Heimskringla,the Gesta Danorum and the rvar-Odds SagaThe analysis of these sources showed that between the thirteenth and the fourteenth century a bifurcation occurred in Scandinavian written sources between the knowledge produced for the purposes of instruction andthe one with the goal of entertainment.The use of the East in the first group is highly scholar, re-elaborating the East in the light of accumulated knowledge of the Western Middle Ages, as well as redefining it within parameters coherent with christian and classical authors.The sources aimed to entertainment, however, employed the eastern areas in connection with a different kind of knowledge. Folk narratives and popular lore gained prominence in the reshaping of eastern region, transforming it in anauspicious place to the materialization of the fantastic and the mythical.

A partir de 1555, le catholique royaume de France connaît l’implantation d’Eglises dites réformées selon l’Evangile. Opposés sur de nombreux sujets théologiques, catholiques et réformés reconnaissent toutefois mutuellement la validité du baptême reçu dans l’autre confession. Cette thèse explore la réalité de cette reconnaissance mutuelle et l’apport du baptême à l’identité réformée, en privilégiant les sources des provinces synodales de l’Ouest. D’une part, elle s’appuie sur une étude de textes (Confession de foi, Discipline ecclésiastique, la Forme d’administrer le baptême, catéchismes, sermons…) et de la controverse religieuse. D’autre part, elle s’intéresse à la pratique à travers des registres de baptêmes, délibérations des consistoires et actes de synodes, ego-documents, l’iconographie et la réglementation royale. Les principales tensions concernent d’abord les cérémonies du baptême catholique, pour ensuite se cristalliser autour de la doctrine catholique de la nécessité absolue du baptême pour le salut des enfants, révélant en parallèle des divisions internes aux réformés. Le « rituel » du baptême, selon les textes et des récits d’observateurs, reflète une sobriété de la liturgie. La présentation des enfants au baptême par des parrains et marraines est soumise à des règles précises sous le contrôle des consistoires ; elle sert ainsi la cohésion de la communauté. Les actes de baptêmes révèlent un vocabulaire et des modèles de parrainage particuliers, tandis que la préférence pour un prénom de l’Ancien Testament n’est que partiellement confirmée. Le pouvoir royal se sert du baptême comme instrument dans sa volonté de ramener les réformés à la foi catholique, avant de l’interdire par l’édit de Fontainebleau (1685), révoquant l’édit de Nantes. Les résultats montrent le baptême réformé comme élément d’une identité confessionnelle réformée. / By the year 1555, the catholic kingdom of France affronted the settlement of Churches "being reformed according to the Gospel". Being on conflict with many subjects, Catholic and Reformed nevertheless mutually recognize baptism received in the opposite confession. Focusing on the Western synodal provinces, this thesis explores the reality of mutual recognition and the contribution of baptism to the reformed identity. On the one hand, the study concerns texts (Confession of Faith, Church Order, the Baptism's Form, catechisms, sermons) as well as religious controversy. On the other hand, the study examines baptismal practice bu baptism records, consistoty records and synod proceedings, egodocuments and the royal regulation. Where in the beginning the principal tensions concern catholic baptism ceremonies, later on, they cristallize on catholic doctrine of the absolute necessity of baptism for infants' salvation, revealing in the meantime internal discordance amongst the Reformed. The 'ritual' of baptism, according to texts and observational writings reveals a sobre liturgy. The presentation of infants by godparents is submitted to several rules being surveyed by the consistories, which make it contribute to community cohesion. Baptismal records reveal some typical vocabulary and godparent models ; the supposed preference for Old Testament given names could only partially be confirmed. The King used baptism as an instrument to bring the Reformed back to the Catholic faith, before banning it by the edict of Revocation (1685)

Cette thèse examine les débats portant sur la place des virus dans le monde vivant. Ces débats concernent tout d’abord le problème de la nature des virus : sont-ils vivants, non vivants, ou entre vivant et non vivant ? Sont-ils des organismes ? Mais ils soulèvent également la question de la classification des virus : faut-il les classer avec les (autres) êtres vivants ? Enfin, ils portent aussi sur les rôles que pourraient avoir les virus dans les origines de la vie, dans l’évolution et dans l’écologie du monde vivant. Nous cherchons d’abord à expliquer l’existence de ces débats au 21e siècle, en étudiant les causes des désaccords entre les biologistes. Notre objectif est également de comprendre l’histoire particulière de ces débats sur les virus. En effet, ils ont été importants dans la première partie du 20e siècle, soit après la découverte des virus dans les années 1890 et avant l’élaboration d’un concept moderne de virus dans les années 1950. Mais après les années 1950, les débats semblent avoir connu un certain retrait, avant d’être ravivés au début du 21e siècle. Cela pose alors la question de la nouveauté des débats actuels : ne sont-ils pas qu’une répétition des anciennes discussions sur la place des virus dans le monde vivant ? Nous montrons ce qui fait la nouveauté de la controverse actuelle, qui se déroule alors même qu’un concept de virus a été construit et en grande partie accepté. Tout en examinant les différentes causes des désaccords entre les biologistes dans le passé et actuellement, nous soulignons en particulier le rôle des définitions dans la recherche scientifique. Enfin, nous affirmons que cette controverse n’est pas purement spéculative. / The place of viruses in the living world has been and still is intensively debated. Different problems are discussed. First, the nature of viruses is not straightforward: are they living, non-living orsomewhere in-between?Are they organisms? Moreover, their biological classification is problematic : should biologists classify viruses with (other) living entities? Finally, biologists also disagree on theputative roles of viruses in the origins of life, as well as in the evolution and ecology of the living world. My first aim is to explain the very existence of such debates in the 21st century. Through a careful examination of the historical context and of the scientific discourse, I investigate the possible causes of disagreement among the biologists. Secondly, I show the complex history of these debates. Discussions about the place of viruses in the living world were indeed very lively during the first part of the 20thcentury, after the discovery of viruses in the 1890s and before the construction of a modern concept ofvirus in the 1950s. These discussions have been revived at the beginning of the 21st century after a certain eclipse during the second part of the 20th century. This revival is in itself problematic. Is the present controversy a simple repetition of an old controversyI describe the distinctive traits of the present controversy that happens despite the fact that a concept of virus has been generally acknowledged after the 1950s. While examining the various sources of disagreements among biologists, I claim that definitions often play a critical role in scientific research. Finally, I show that this controversy is not mere speculation.

The purpose of this investigation was to explore how aspects of identity, perceived levels of controversy, and the strength of a student's attachment to their controversial identity relate to conceptual understanding and knowledge acquisition during socioscientific issues (SSI) based instruction in a biology classroom. The knowledge gained from this study will have the capacity to enhance our understanding of the role that attachment to identity plays during SSI negotiation. Additionally, insight was gained into the role played by aspects of identity in conceptual understanding of scientifically controversial topics during SSI based instruction. This study contributed to the existing knowledge base in science education by illuminating processes involved in socioscientific issue navigation among students of differing perceptions of controversy as well as students who held aspects of controversial identity that may or may not interact with the specific issues chosen. Students demonstrated evidence of variations of reasoning, justification, perception of controversy, and aspects of knowledge gain as they negotiated the issues of marijuana safety and fast food legality. Additionally, evidence was provided that showed general knowledge gain throughout the group during socioscientific issues instruction. It has been said that one of the appeals of the SSI instructional model is that is serves not only as a context for the delivery of content, but acts as a catalyst for various forms of epistemological beliefs and research into the development of conceptual and psychological knowledge structures (Zeidler, 2013). This investigation supports the deeper understanding of the contribution of controversy perception to epistemology as well as conceptual and psychological knowledge structures during SSI navigation.

„Der kluge Spieler und die Ethik des Computerspielens“ ist eine moralphilosophische Analyse der sogenannten „Killerspiel-Diskussion“. Als Aufhänger dient der Amoklauf von Winnenden, in dessen Nachgang Diskussionen über Computerspiele, speziell solche mit gewalthaltigem Inhalt, aufkamen. In der öffentlichen Meinung wird häufig davon ausgegangen, dass das Spielen solcher Computerspiele auch in der Realität zu gewalttätigem Verhalten führt. Einige Politiker stellen diese Spiele sogar mit Kinderpornographie gleich. Mithilfe dreier bekannter normativer ethischer Theorien – dem Konsequentialismus (Mill), der Deontologie (Kant) und der Tugendethik (Aristoteles) – werden die wissenschaftlichen Argumente contra Computerspiele analysiert und bewertet. Die Computerspielgegner konzentrieren sich auf den Inhalt und die grafische Darstellung der Spiele (narratologischer Ansatz). Am Ende einer ausführlichen Darstellung ihrer Argumente stellt sich heraus, dass keines davon haltbar ist, wenn man die ethischen Theorien auf sie anwendet. Einzig der tugendethische Ansatz scheint Ansätze zu bieten, auf denen man aufbauen kann, allerdings nicht gegen, sondern für Spiele. Diesem wird im zweiten Teil des Buches nachgegangen. Miguel Sicarts Werk „The Ethics of Computer Games“ versucht, eine konkrete Ethik des Computerspiels zu entwickeln. In „Der kluge Spieler und die Ethik des Computerspielens“ wird Sicarts Werk zum ersten Mal im Deutschen vorgestellt, in seine einzelnen Bestandteile zerlegt und re-strukturiert. In Sicarts Ethik-Konzept für Computerspiele werden die Inhalte und die Grafik der Computerspiele komplett außen vor gelassen. Sein Ansatz ist ein ludologischer (spielwissenschaftlicher), der das Regelwerk und System der Spiele in den Vordergrund schiebt. Die drei Kernelemente seiner Theorie werden dargestellt: 1. das Computerspiel als moralisches Objekt, 2. der Computerspieler als moralisches Subjekt und 3. das Computerspielen als moralische Handlung. Diese drei Aspekte wirken zusammen und miteinander. Es entsteht eine Wechselwirkung zwischen dem Spiel und dem Spieler, in den auch das Nicht-Spieler-Subjekt einbezogen wird. Ein Mensch spielt ein Computerspiel und wird dadurch zum Spieler dieses Spiels. Er nimmt das Regelwerk auf und ruft seine vorhandene Erfahrung aus früheren Spielen ab, um somit ein möglichst gelungenes Spielen zu bewerkstelligen. Damit ist gemeint, dass er nicht schummelt, dass er keine Tricks anwendet, dass er in Mehrspielerspielen Fairplay walten lässt etc. Zusätzlich ist dieser Spieler aber nicht nur ein Spieler, sondern er befindet sich in sozialen Kontexten, hat Werte und Ansichten und diese fließen in sein Spieler-Repertoire ein. In solch einer Wechselwirkung verhält sich der Spieler moralisch korrekt, wenn er dem Spiel zu dem verhilft, was es ist: eine Erfahrung. Das Spiel ist nämlich zweierlei: 1. Das Objekt, also eine CD in einer Hülle mit einer Spielanleitung etc. 2. Das Spiel, das am Bildschirm tatsächlich erfahren wird, indem es gespielt wird. Sieht das Spiel eine gewalthaltige Lösung vor, ist es in Sicarts Ethik des Computerspiels moralisch richtig, diese zu vollziehen. Was Sicart mit seiner Theorie letztendlich zeichnet, ist das Bild eines „klugen Spielers“. Der dritte Teil des Buches analysiert Sicarts Ethik des Computerspiels und zeigt mithilfe eines praktischen Beispiels seine Schwachstelle auf. Während die Computerspielgegner sich ausschließlich auf den Inhalt und die Grafik konzentrieren, ignoriert Sicart sie gänzlich. Somit stellen beide Ansätze Extrempositionen dar. Sicarts Ansatz wird in eine „Ethik des Computerspielens“ uminterpretiert und anschließend auf die Diskussionen rund um den Amoklauf von Winnenden angewendet. Dadurch können die Ausgangsargumente gegen Killerspiele endgültig wissenschaftlich widerlegt werden. Im letzten Teil des Buches wird die Brücke zum tugendethischen Ansatz des Aristoteles geschlagen: der gemäßigte Mittelweg führt zu einem guten Leben. Eine komplette Computerspielethik muss beide Aspekte beinhalten: den grafisch-inhaltlichen („narratologischen“) und den spieltechnischen („ludologischen“) Ansatz. Nur im Zusammenspiel beider kann eine umfassende Computerspielethik gesucht und gefunden werden. Hierzu wird ein Grundgerüst vorgeschlagen sowie zwei Ideen, welche für weitere Forschung auf dem Gebiet verwendet werden können. / “The Prudent Player and the Ethics of Computer Gaming” is a moral philosophical analysis of the so called “killergame-controversy”. After the gun rampage of Winnenden, heavy discussions arose in Germany about video games, especially those with violent content. The public opinion is that violent video games cause violent behaviour in real life. Some German politicians even claimed that such games would be on one level with child pornography. With the help of three known normative ethical theories – consequentialism (Mill), deontology (Kant) and virtue ethics (Aristoteles) – the scientific arguments against video games are analysed and evaluated. The opponents of video games focus on the content and graphics of the games (narratological approach). After an extensive presentation of their arguments, it turns out that none remains valid after applying the ethical theories to them. Solely the virtue ethics approach seems to be of help, however not against but in aid of video games. This is dealt with in the second part of the book. Miguel Sicart’s work “The Ethics of Computer Games” tries to develop a tangible ethics for computer games. “The Clever Player and the Ethics of Computer Gaming” presents Sicart’s theory for the first time in German and re-structures it’s content by focussing on the main ingredients of his theory. Sicart’s concept does not include any content or graphical aspects. It is a strictly ludological (game studies) approach which focuses on the rules and the system of the games. The three main elements of his theory are: 1. the video game as a moral object, 2. the player as a moral subject and 3. playing video games as a moral act. These three aspects work together. The result is an interaction between the game and the player which also includes the non-playing-subject of the player. A person starts playing a video game and hence becomes the player of this game. He acts according to the rules and uses his previous experience with other games in order to play as properly as possible. This means that he does not cheat, does not use tricks, acts with fair play in multiplayer games etc. Since the player is more than just a player, he also uses his virtues and perspectives from the real world as a player-tool. The player acts morally correct in such an interaction, if he helps the game become an experience rather than a mere object (CD/DVD). Only when a game is experienced on the screen by a player, it becomes a real game as intended by it’s designers. And if this game needs a violent on-screen solution for solving a problem, then the player ought to do so. The player which Sicart describes is a “clever player” and not some sort of zombie without thoughts and evaluation of what is happening. The third part of the book analyses Sicart’s framework and shows his weakness with the help of a practical example. While the opponents of video games focus on the content and graphics only, Sicart’s approach does not include them at all. Therefore, both positions are extreme and Sicart’s point of view is re-interpreted into an “Ethics of Computer Gaming”, pointing out the active part of his theory. Now it is scientifically possible to prove all arguments against video games following the Winnenden-controversy wrong at one go. The last part of the book goes back to Aristoteles’ view on ethics: living a good life means finding the middle ground between extremes. Hence, a complete ethics of computer games needs both approaches: the narratological (graphics and content) and the ludological (rules and game systems). Only when both are combined, a real ethics of computer games is possible. A framework for such a theory is proposed as well as two ideas which can be helpful for further research in this field.

The synoptic gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke are commonly regarded as biographical in nature in their presentation of the life and teachings of Jesus. The gospels of Matthew and Luke report that Jesus was born a Hebrew among Hebrews, raised as a Jew within the Jewish nation, and functioned a first century Rabbi in a completely Jewish context during which time he started his own movement called the kingdom of heaven. The Rabbis of that day commonly enlisted a group of followers or disciples. The combination of a Rabbi and his students constituted an academy. Two schools or academies existed during the time of Jesus and were contemporary with him, the school of Shammai and the school of Hillel. The Babylonian Talmud dating from 500 C.E. records exactly three hundred and sixteen legal controversies between these two schools. Legal disputes between Jesus and representatives of one or the other existing schools of thought are recorded in the synoptic gospels. Each record clearly identifies the subject under dispute and the positions of the disputing parties. Nevertheless, the incomplete information provided in the synoptic gospels is not sufficient to allow readers to understand the dispute at hand. For example, a group of unidentified Pharisees approach Jesus with a specific question regarding the legalities of divorce. They ask the following question: "Is it lawful to divorce one's wife for any cause (Matthew 19:3)?" This question can raise these questions in the readers minds: Why was this question presented to Jesus? What is the background of this legality? What is the actual law regarding this matter? Is this an unresolved issue? Who are the parties involved in resolving this issue? Is there more detailed information regarding this issue? Ancient Jewish sources provide answers to all of these questions. This dissertation provides the material lacking in the synoptic gospels to enable one to understand the controversy and Jesus' interpretation. This will be accomplished through use of Jewish sources that provide the details of the disputes recorded in the synoptic gospels as well as identifying the various parties involved. Behind the process of presenting background information in this dissertation lies the premise that any study of the life and teachings of Jesus performed without consulting ancient Jewish sources will result in confusion and misunderstanding. This dissertation highlights information relating to these controversies that is lacking in the synoptic gospels and will enable the reader to understand the nature of the controversy and Jesus' conclusions. / text

Since the conspicuously broad and vague definition of terrorism in the USA PATRIOT Act, signed into legislation on October 26, 2001 to increase governmental power in domestic security procedures, legal doctrine and normative practices of free speech have become sites of struggle over the meaning of both terrorism and freedom of expression. In 2005, twelve cartoonists drew the Prophet Muhammad for the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten. The subsequent reprints and republications led to boycotts, protests, and riots in over 27 countries culminating in at least 139 deaths. Now known as the Danish cartoons controversy, news and entertainment sources alike narrate a story about protecting a fundamental characteristic of American identity—free speech—in the face of a terrorist threat. In American universities, David Horowitz’s proposed legislation, the Academic Bill of Rights, targets Left academics, who, according to Horowitz, “influence, in a negative way, America’s war on terror.” In August 2008, protesters at the Republican National Convention were formally charged with conspiracy to riot in furtherance of terrorism. In this dissertation, I explore how the rhetoric of free speech is a naturalizing and legitimating ideology employed to organize people around particular interests and mobilize them toward particular political ends. My research is guided by the question: How has the ideological terrain of the First Amendment—specifically, the right to free speech—changed since September 11, 2001, and why? I argue that rhetoricians should approach the traditional free speech narrative as part of an instrumental political act, as opposed to a universal principle. Cast as a discursive tool in a hegemonic struggle, the traditional free speech narrative offers the potential to open up spaces of protest and infuse ordinary citizens with political agency. Using the method of ideology critique, I develop and test these arguments through three case studies of free speech since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001: the Danish cartoons controversy, David Horowitz’s Academic Freedom Campaign, and protests during the 2008 Republican National Convention. / text